The maps of 1812 are detailed. The composition of the Russian empire. Causes from France

Along with the collapse of the Russian Empire, the majority of the population chose to create independent national states. Many of them were never destined to remain sovereign, and they became part of the USSR. Others were incorporated into the Soviet state later. And what was the Russian empire like at the beginning Xxcentury?

By the end of the 19th century, the territory of the Russian Empire was 22.4 million km 2. According to the 1897 census, the population was 128.2 million, including the population of European Russia - 93.4 million; Kingdom of Poland - 9.5 million - 2.6 million, Caucasian region - 9.3 million, Siberia - 5.8 million, Central Asia - 7.7 million. Over 100 peoples lived; 57% of the population were non-Russian peoples. The territory of the Russian Empire in 1914 was divided into 81 provinces and 20 regions; there were 931 cities. Some of the provinces and regions were united into general governorships (Warsaw, Irkutsk, Kiev, Moscow, Amur, Steppe, Turkestan and Finland).

By 1914, the length of the territory of the Russian Empire was 4383.2 versts (4675.9 km) from north to south and 10,060 versts (10,732.3 km) from east to west. The total length of land and sea borders is 64,909.5 versts (69,245 km), of which land borders accounted for 18,639.5 versts (19,941.5 km), and sea borders - about 46,270 versts (49,360 , 4 km).

The entire population was considered subjects of the Russian Empire, the male population (from 20 years old) swore allegiance to the emperor. The subjects of the Russian Empire were divided into four estates ("states"): nobility, clergy, urban and rural inhabitants. The local population of Kazakhstan, Siberia and a number of other regions stood out as an independent "state" (foreigners). The coat of arms of the Russian Empire was a two-headed eagle with tsarist regalia; the national flag - a cloth with white, blue and red horizontal stripes; the national anthem - "God Save the Tsar." National language - Russian.

Administratively, the Russian Empire by 1914 was divided into 78 provinces, 21 regions and 2 independent districts. Provinces and regions were subdivided into 777 counties and districts and in Finland - into 51 parishes. Counties, districts and parishes, in turn, were divided into camps, departments and sections (2523 in total), as well as 274 Lensmanship in Finland.

Territories important in the military-political plan (capital and border areas) were combined into governorships and general governorships. Some cities were separated into special administrative units - city governments.

Even before the transformation of the Grand Duchy of Moscow into the Russian Kingdom in 1547, at the beginning of the 16th century, Russian expansion began to go beyond its ethnic territory and began to absorb the following territories (the table does not indicate the lands lost before the beginning of the 19th century):

Territory	Date (year) of accession to the Russian Empire	Facts
Western Armenia (Asia Minor)		The territory was ceded in 1917-1918
Eastern Galicia, Bukovina (Eastern Europe)		In 1915 it was ceded, in 1916 it was partially recaptured, in 1917 it was lost
Uryankhai Territory (Southern Siberia)		Currently part of the Republic of Tuva
Franz Josef Land, Emperor Nicholas II Land, New Siberian Islands (Arctic)		Archipelagos of the Arctic Ocean, fixed as the territory of Russia by the note of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Northern Iran (Middle East)		Lost as a result of revolutionary events and the Civil War in Russia. Currently owned by the state of Iran
Concession in Tianjin		Lost in 1920. Currently, the city of central subordination of the PRC
Kwantung Peninsula (Far East)		Lost as a result of defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. Currently, Liaoning Province, PRC
Badakhshan (Central Asia)		Currently, the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous District of Tajikistan
Hankou Concession (Wuhan, East Asia)		Currently, Hubei Province, PRC
Transcaspian region (Central Asia)		Currently owned by Turkmenistan
Adjarian and Kars-Childyr sandzhaks (Transcaucasia)		In 1921 they were ceded to Turkey. Currently Adjara Autonomous Okrug of Georgia; Illy Kars and Ardahan in Turkey
Bayazet (Dogubayazit) sandzhak (Transcaucasia)		In the same year, 1878, ceded to Turkey following the results of the Berlin Congress
Principality of Bulgaria, Eastern Rumelia, Adrianople Sandjak (Balkans)		Abolished by the results of the Berlin Congress in 1879. Currently Bulgaria, Turkey's Marmara region
Kokand Khanate (Central Asia)		Currently Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan
Khiva (Khorezm) Khanate (Central Asia)		Currently Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan
including the Aland Islands		Currently Finland, Republic of Karelia, Murmansk, Leningrad regions
Tarnopolsky District of Austria (Eastern Europe)		Currently, the Ternopil region of Ukraine
Bialystok District of Prussia (Eastern Europe)		Currently Podlaskie Voivodeship of Poland
Ganja (1804), Karabakh (1805), Sheki (1805), Shirvan (1805), Baku (1806), Cuba (1806), Derbent (1806), northern part of Talysh (1809) Khanate (Transcaucasia)		Vassal khanates of Persia, seizure and voluntary entry. Sealed in 1813 by a treaty with Persia following the results of the war. Limited autonomy until the 1840s. Currently Azerbaijan, Nagorno-Karabakh Republic
Imeretian kingdom (1810), Megrelian (1803) and Gurian (1804) principalities (Transcaucasia)		Kingdom and principalities of Western Georgia (since 1774 independent from Turkey). Protectorates and voluntary entries. Sealed in 1812 by a treaty with Turkey and in 1813 by a treaty with Persia. Self-government until the end of the 1860s. Currently Georgia, Samegrelo-Upper Svaneti, Guria, Imereti, Samtskhe-Javakheti regions
Minsk, Kiev, Bratslav, eastern parts of Vilensk, Novogrudok, Beresteysk, Volyn and Podolsk voivodeships of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Eastern Europe)		Currently Vitebsk, Minsk, Gomel regions of Belarus; Rivne, Khmelnytsky, Zhytomyr, Vinnytsia, Kiev, Cherkassk, Kirovograd regions of Ukraine
Crimea, Edisan, Dzhambayluk, Edishkul, Small Nogai Horde (Kuban, Taman) (Northern Black Sea region)		Khanate (independent from Turkey since 1772) and nomadic Nogai tribal unions. Annexation, secured in 1792 by treaty as a result of the war. Currently Rostov region, Krasnodar region, Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol; Zaporozhye, Kherson, Nikolaev, Odessa regions of Ukraine
Kuril Islands (Far East)		Ainu tribal unions, bringing into Russian citizenship, finally by 1782. Under the treaty of 1855, the South Kuriles in Japan, under the treaty of 1875 - all the islands. Currently, the Severo-Kuril, Kuril and South Kuril urban districts of the Sakhalin region
Chukotka (Far East)		Currently Chukotka Autonomous Okrug
Tarkov shamkhalstvo (North Caucasus)		Currently the Republic of Dagestan
Ossetia (Caucasus)		Currently the Republic of North Ossetia - Alania, Republic of South Ossetia
Big and Small Kabarda		Principality. In 1552-1570, a military alliance with the Russian state, later the vassals of Turkey. In the years 1739-1774, under the contract - a buffer principality. Since 1774 in Russian citizenship. Currently Stavropol Territory, Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, Chechen Republic
Inflyantskoe, Mstislavskoe, large parts of the Polotsk, Vitebsk Voivodeships of the Commonwealth (Eastern Europe)		Currently Vitebsk, Mogilev, Gomel regions of Belarus, Daugavpils region of Latvia, Pskov, Smolensk regions of Russia
Kerch, Yenikale, Kinburn (Northern Black Sea Region)		Fortresses, from the Crimean Khanate by agreement. Recognized by Turkey in 1774 by treaty as a result of the war. The Crimean Khanate gained independence from the Ottoman Empire under the auspices of Russia. Currently, the urban district of Kerch of the Republic of Crimea of ​​Russia, Ochakovsky district of the Nikolaev region of Ukraine
Ingushetia (North Caucasus)		Currently, the Republic of Ingushetia
Altai (Southern Siberia)		Currently Altai Territory, Altai Republic, Novosibirsk, Kemerovo, Tomsk regions of Russia, East Kazakhstan region of Kazakhstan
Kymenigorda and Neyshloth flax - Neyshlot, Vilmanstrand and Friedrichsgam (Baltic States)		Flax, from Sweden by treaty as a result of the war. Since 1809 in the Russian Grand Duchy of Finland. Currently Leningrad region of Russia, Finland (region of South Karelia)
Junior zhuz (Central Asia)		Currently, the West Kazakhstan region of Kazakhstan
(Kyrgyz land, etc.) (South Siberia)		Currently, the Republic of Khakassia
Novaya Zemlya, Taimyr, Kamchatka, Commander Islands (Arctic, Far East)		Currently, the Arkhangelsk region, Kamchatka, Krasnoyarsk Territory

Original title in French: "Carte de la Russie Europeenne en LXXVII feuilles executee au Depot general de la Guerre". Scale 1: 500000.

In preparation for the war with Russia, Napoleon Bonaparte was tasked with creating several topographic maps of our country. To quickly get the job done, the French spies needed to get a detailed map of the Russian Empire and redraw it in their own way.

The so-called " capital map"the territory of Russia, published in 1801-1804. There are several assumptions how such a map could have got to France. According to a more conspiracy theory, copper prints of the map were secretly bought by the French ambassador J.A. Loriston from one of the employees of the state archive in St. Petersburg , about which there is evidence of Colonel JB Marbaud According to a more prosaic version, the map was already printed in the form of purchased in December 1810 from a French second-hand bookseller. The map was not secret.

After receiving the original map, the French translated it by transliteration, added their intelligence, engraved all the sheets of the map anew, and already in February 1812 the first 40 copies of the Great Map of the Russian Empire were printed using the print method.

The map consisted of 104 sheets 79x50 cm and was divided into European and Asian parts. The European one consisted of 77 sheets. On it were designated settlements: provincial cities with hexagons, uyezd ones - with pentagons, as well as the main roads into the interior of Russia, indicating the distances between cities. The tab sheet contains a Russian-French dictionary of topographic terms.

The map itself is very conditional, the topographers of that time did not yet have the proper skills and tools to draw up accurate maps, but from a toponymic point of view, it is of great value. Despite the low accuracy, which objectively deserves a one-star rating on our site: "Bad", we still gave the rating "Satisfactory" to enable the possibility of using the calibration function of the correction for this map.

Our site contains an assembly of 29 basic map sheets from the Baltic Sea to the Caucasus. Also on the site are several sheets from

On October 7 (19), 1812, Napoleon, at the head of the main forces of the Great Army, left Moscow and headed along the Old Kaluga road. Intending to secretly bypass the Russian camp, located in the area of ​​the village of Tarutino, Napoleon's troops crossed to the New Kaluga road near the village. Fominsky. The chief surgeon of one of the Württemberg cavalry regiments, Heinrich Ulrich Ludwig von Roos, recalled: “While we were crossing from this area, from the old Kaluga road to the new one leading to Borovsk, various events took place, of which I would like to note the following. The first rumor that spread at the time of our meeting was that Napoleon was going to penetrate into the southern provinces, into the granary of Russia, smash the Russians along the way, ruin Tula arms factories and then either give us good winter apartments or take us home through the rich lands ".

The Russian command did not know about these plans. Only on October 10 (22), the flying detachment of Captain A.N. Seslavin found in the area with. Fominsky, the main forces of Napoleon, led by the emperor himself. Having received a report about this, M.I. Kutuzov sent a detachment under the command of D.S. Dokhturova himself, together with the main forces of the Russian army, also headed for this city in the morning of the next day.

On October 11 (23), at about 6 pm, the 13th Infantry Division of the 4th Army Corps under the command of General A.Zh. Maloyaroslavets took Delzona. The next morning, at about 5 o'clock, the troops of D.S. Dokhturov. An 18-hour battle began, during which the small county town changed hands several times and, as a result, was almost completely destroyed. A participant in the battle - an officer of the Great Army Labom recalled: “... The internal view of Maloyaroslavets was a terrible sight. The city in which they fought no longer existed!

The streets could only be distinguished by the numerous corpses with which they were strewn. At every step we came across severed arms and legs, and heads crushed by passing artillery pieces were scattered about. Only smoking ruins remained of the houses, under the burning ashes of which half-collapsed skeletons could be seen ... ”.

In total, more than 55 thousand people took part in the battle, and the losses on both sides were enormous. The killed and wounded Russian soldiers numbered up to 7000 people, the same number was lost to the enemy.

As a result of the battle, which ended only late at night, Maloyaroslavets, or rather, the place where he was, remained in the hands of the French. But the Russian troops retreating from it took up positions on the heights around the city, blocking all roads to Kaluga and thereby solving the main task facing them.

“This day is one of the most significant in this bloody war. For the lost battle at Maloyaroslavets would entail a most disastrous consequence and would open the way for the enemy through our grain-growing provinces ", - wrote M.I. Kutuzov.

Two days later, on October 15 (27), Napoleon gave the order to retreat to the Old Smolensk road, which had already been devastated during the first stage of the campaign. One of Napoleon's close associates, Count Philip Paul de Segur later recalled Maloyaroslavets as "The ill-fated battlefield, where the conquest of the world stopped, where 20 years of continuous victories crumbled to dust, where the great collapse of our happiness began".

To this day, the city sacredly keeps the memory of the fierce battle, which became the "beginning of the end" of the great empire of Napoleon and brought great glory to Maloyaroslavets.

2011 "Museum-panorama" Battle of Borodino "

The Patriotic War of 1812 began on June 12 - on this day, Napoleon's troops crossed the Neman River, unleashing wars between the two crowns of French and Russian. This war lasted until December 14, 1812, culminating in a complete and unconditional victory for the Russian and allied forces. This is a glorious page in Russian history, which we will consider, referring to the official history textbooks of Russia and France, as well as to the books of bibliographers Napoleon, Alexander 1 and Kutuzov, who describe in great detail the events taking place at that moment.

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The beginning of the war

Causes of the war of 1812

The causes of the Patriotic War of 1812, like all other wars in the history of mankind, must be considered in two aspects - the reasons on the part of France and the reasons on the part of Russia.

Causes from France

In just a few years, Napoleon radically changed his own view of Russia. If, having come to power, he wrote that Russia was his only ally, then by 1812 Russia had become a threat to France (consider it to the emperor). This was largely provoked by Alexander 1 himself. So, this is why France attacked Russia in June 1812:

1. Violation of the Tilsit Agreements: Easing the Continental Blockade. As you know, the main enemy of France at that time was England, against which the blockade was organized. Russia also participated in this, but in 1810 the government passed a law allowing trade with England through intermediaries. In fact, this made the entire blockade ineffective, which completely undermined the plans of France.
2. Dynastic marriage rejections. Napoleon sought to marry the imperial court of Russia in order to become "God's anointed". However, in 1808 he was denied marriage to Princess Catherine. In 1810 he was denied marriage to Princess Anna. As a result, in 1811 the French emperor married an Austrian princess.
3. The transfer of Russian troops to the border with Poland in 1811. In the first half of 1811, Alexander 1 ordered to transfer 3 divisions to the Polish borders, fearing a Polish uprising, which could be transferred to Russian lands. This step was regarded by Napoleon as aggression and preparation for war for Polish territories, which by that time were already subordinate to France.

Soldiers! A new, second in a row, Polish war begins! The first ended in Tilsit. There Russia promised to be an eternal ally for France in the war with England, but she broke her promise. The Russian emperor does not want to give explanations for his actions until the French eagles cross the Rhine. Do they think that we have become different? Are we not the winners of Austerlitz? Russia presented France with a choice - shame or war. The choice is obvious! Let's go forward, let's cross the Neman! The second Polish howl will be glorious for the French arms. It will bring a messenger to Russia's destructive influence on European affairs.

So a war of conquest began for France.

Reasons from Russia

On the part of Russia, there were also good reasons for participating in the war, which turned out to be a liberation for the state. The main reasons are the following:

1. Large losses of all segments of the population from the rupture of trade with England. The opinions of historians on this point differ, since it is believed that the blockade did not affect the state as a whole, but only its elite, which, as a result of the lack of the possibility of trade with England, was losing money.
2. France's intention to recreate the Commonwealth. In 1807, Napoleon created the Duchy of Warsaw and sought to recreate the ancient state in its true dimensions. Perhaps this was only in the case of the seizure of its western lands from Russia.
3. Violation of the Peace of Tilsit by Napoleon. One of the main criteria for signing this agreement is that Prussia should be cleared of French troops, but this was never done, although Alexander 1 constantly reminded of this.

For a long time France has been trying to encroach on the independence of Russia. We always tried to be meek, believing so to reject her attempts to capture. With all our desire to keep the peace, we are forced to gather troops to defend the Motherland. There are no opportunities for a peaceful solution to the conflict with France, which means that there is only one thing left - to defend the truth, to defend Russia from the invaders. I do not need to remind generals and soldiers of courage, it is in our hearts. The blood of the victors, the blood of the Slavs flows in our veins. Soldiers! You defend the country, defend religion, defend the fatherland. I'm with you. God is with us.

The balance of forces and means at the beginning of the war

The crossing of Napoleon across the Neman took place on June 12, with 450 thousand people at his disposal. By the end of the month, another 200,000 people joined him. Considering that by that time there were no large losses on the part of both sides, then the total number of the French army at the time of the outbreak of hostilities in 1812 was 650 thousand soldiers. It is impossible to say that the French made up 100% of the army, since the combined army of almost all European countries (France, Austria, Poland, Switzerland, Italy, Prussia, Spain, Holland) fought on the side of France. However, it was the French who formed the basis of the army. They were proven soldiers who won many victories with their emperor.

Russia after mobilization had 590 thousand soldiers. Initially, the army was 227 thousand people, and they were divided along three fronts:

• Northern - First Army. Commander - Mikhail Bogdanovich Barclay de Tolly. Population - 120 thousand people. They were located in the north of Lithuania and covered St. Petersburg.
• Central - Second Army. Commander - Peter Ivanovich Bagration. Population - 49 thousand people. They were located in the south of Lithuania, covering Moscow.
• Southern - Third Army. Commander - Alexander Petrovich Tormasov. Population - 58 thousand people. They were located in Volhynia, covering the attack on Kiev.

Also in Russia, partisan detachments were actively operating, the number of which reached 400 thousand people.

The first stage of the war - the offensive of Napoleon's troops (June-September)

At 6 o'clock in the morning on June 12, 1812, a Patriotic war with Napoleonic France began for Russia. Napoleon's troops crossed the Niemen and headed inland. The main direction of the strike was supposed to be in Moscow. The commander himself said that "if I capture Kiev, I will raise the Russians by the legs, if I capture St. Petersburg, I will take it by the throat; if I take Moscow, I will strike the heart of Russia."

The French army, commanded by brilliant commanders, was looking for a general battle and the fact that Alexander 1 divided the army into 3 fronts was very into the hands of the aggressors. However, at the initial stage, Barclay de Tolly played a decisive role, who gave the order not to engage in battle with the enemy and to retreat inland. This was necessary in order to combine forces, as well as to bring up reserves. Retreating, the Russians destroyed everything - they killed livestock, poisoned the water, burned the fields. In the literal sense of the word, the French moved forward through the ashes. Later, Napoleon complained that the Russian people were waging a dastardly war and were not behaving according to the rules.

North direction

Napoleon sent 32 thousand people led by General MacDonald to St. Petersburg. The first city on this route was Riga. According to France's plan, MacDonald was to capture the city. Connect with General Oudinot (he had 28 thousand people at his disposal) and go further.

The defense of Riga was commanded by General Essen with 18 thousand soldiers. He burned everything around the city, and the city itself was very well fortified. MacDonald by this time captured Dinaburg (the Russians left the city with the beginning of the war) and did not conduct further active actions. He understood the absurdity of storming Riga and waited for the arrival of artillery.

General Oudinot occupied Polotsk and from there tried to separate Wittgenstein's corps from Barclay de Tolly's army. However, on July 18, Wittgenstein struck an unexpected blow at Oudinot, who was saved from defeat only by the corps of Saint-Cyr that had arrived in time. As a result, equilibrium was achieved and no more active offensive operations were carried out in the northern direction.

South direction

General Runier with an army of 22 thousand people was supposed to act in the southern direction, blocking the army of General Tormasov, preventing it from joining with the rest of the Russian army.

On July 27, Tormasov surrounded the city of Kobrin, where the main forces of Ranye gathered. The French suffered a terrible defeat - 5 thousand people were killed in the battle in 1 day, which forced the French to retreat. Napoleon realized that the southern direction in the Patriotic War of 1812 was in danger of failure. Therefore, he transferred the troops of General Schwarzenberg, numbering 30 thousand people. As a result, on August 12, Tormasov was forced to retreat to Lutsk and take up defenses there. In the future, the French did not undertake active offensive actions in the southern direction. The main events took place in the Moscow direction.

The course of events of the offensive company

On June 26, the army of General Bagration moved out of Vitebsk, the task of which Alexander I put into battle with the main forces of the enemy in order to wear them out. Everyone realized the absurdity of this idea, but only by July 17 the emperor was finally dissuaded from this venture. The troops began to retreat to Smolensk.

On July 6, the large number of Napoleon's troops became clear. To prevent the Patriotic War from dragging on for a long time, Alexander 1 signs a decree on the creation of a militia. Literally all residents of the country are enrolled in it - there are about 400 thousand volunteers in total.

On July 22, the armies of Bagration and Barclay de Tolly united near Smolensk. The command of the combined army was assumed by Barclay de Tolly, who had 130,000 soldiers at his disposal, while the vanguard of the French army numbered 150,000 soldiers.

On July 25, a council of war was held in Smolensk, at which the question of accepting a battle was discussed in order to launch a counteroffensive and defeat Napoleon with one blow. But Barclay spoke out against this idea, realizing that an open battle with the enemy, a brilliant strategist and tactician, could lead to a grandiose failure. As a result, the offensive idea was not implemented. It was decided to retreat further - to Moscow.

On July 26, the retreat of troops began, which General Neverovsky was supposed to cover, occupying the village of Krasnoe, thereby closing the bypass of Smolensk for Napoleon.

On August 2, Murat with a cavalry corps tried to break through the defenses of Neverovsky, but to no avail. In total, more than 40 attacks were undertaken with the help of cavalry, but they did not succeed in achieving the desired.

August 5 is one of the important dates in the Patriotic War of 1812. Napoleon began the assault on Smolensk, capturing the suburbs in the evening. However, at night he was driven out of the city, and the Russian army continued its massive retreat from the city. This caused a storm of discontent among the soldiers. They believed that if they managed to knock the French out of Smolensk, then it was necessary to destroy it there. They accused Barclay of cowardice, but the general implemented only one plan - to wear down the enemy and take a decisive battle when the balance of forces was on the side of Russia. By this time, the French had all the advantage.

On August 17, Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov arrived in the army and took over the command. This candidacy did not raise questions, since Kutuzov (a student of Suvorov) was highly respected and was considered the best Russian commander after the death of Suvorov. Arriving in the army, the new commander-in-chief wrote that he had not yet decided what to do next: "The issue has not yet been resolved - either to lose the army, or to give up Moscow."

On August 26, the Battle of Borodino took place. Its outcome still raises many questions and disputes, but there were no losers then. Each commander solved his problems: Napoleon opened his way to Moscow (the heart of Russia, as the emperor of France himself wrote), and Kutuzov was able to inflict heavy damage on the enemy, thereby making the initial turning point in the battle of 1812.

September 1 is a significant day, which is described in all history textbooks. A council of war was held in Fili, near Moscow. Kutuzov gathered his generals to decide what to do next. There were only two options: to retreat and surrender Moscow, or after Borodino to organize a second general battle. Most of the generals, on the wave of success, demanded a battle in order to defeat Napoleon in the shortest possible time. Opponents of this development of events were Kutuzov himself and Barclay de Tolly. The military council in Fili ended with Kutuzov's phrase “As long as there is an army, there is hope. We will lose the army near Moscow - we will lose not only the ancient capital, but also the whole of Russia ”.

September 2 - following the results of the military council of the generals, which took place in Fili, it was decided that it was necessary to leave the ancient capital. The Russian army retreated, and Moscow itself, before the arrival of Napoleon, according to many sources, was subjected to terrible looting. However, this is not even the main thing. Retreating, the Russian army set fire to the city. Wooden Moscow burned down almost three-quarters. Most importantly, literally all food stores were destroyed. The reasons for the Moscow fire lie in the fact that the French did not get anything from what the enemies could use for food, movement, or in other aspects. As a result, the troops of the aggressors found themselves in a very precarious position.

Second stage of the war - Napoleon's retreat (October - December)

Having occupied Moscow, Napoleon considered the mission accomplished. The commander's bibliographers later wrote that he was faithful - the loss of the historical center of Russia would break the victorious spirit, and the leaders of the country had to come to him with a request for peace. But this did not happen. Kutuzov settled down with an army 80 kilometers from Moscow at Tarutin and waited until the enemy army, deprived of normal supplies, weakened and itself would bring a radical change to the Patriotic War. Without waiting for a peace proposal from Russia, the French emperor himself took the initiative.

Napoleon's desire for peace

According to Napoleon's original plan, the capture of Moscow was to play a decisive role. Here it was possible to deploy a convenient foothold, including for a hike to St. Petersburg, the capital of Russia. However, the delay in moving around Russia and the heroism of the people, who fought literally for every piece of land, practically thwarted this plan. After all, a march to the north of Russia in winter for the French army with irregular food supplies was actually equal to death. This became clear by the end of September, when it started to get colder. Subsequently, Napoleon wrote in his autobiography that his biggest mistake was the campaign to Moscow and the month he spent there.

Realizing the severity of his position, the French emperor and commander decided to end the Patriotic War of Russia by signing a peace treaty with her. There were three such attempts:

1. September 18. Through General Tutolmin, a message was transmitted to Alexander 1, which said that Napoleon honored the Russian emperor and offered him peace. Russia is only required to give up the territory of Lithuania and again return to the continental blockade.
2. September 20th. Alexander 1 received a second letter from Napoleon offering peace. The terms offered are the same as before. The Russian emperor did not respond to these messages.
3. The 4th of October. The hopelessness of the situation led to the fact that Napoleon literally begged for peace. This is what he writes to Alexander 1 (according to the famous French historian F. Segur): "I need peace, I need it, no matter what, only save honor." This proposal was delivered to Kutuzov, but the emperor of France did not wait for an answer.

The retreat of the French army in the autumn and winter of 1812

It became obvious to Napoleon that he would not be able to sign a peace treaty with Russia, and it was folly to remain in Moscow for the winter, which the Russians retreating to burn. Moreover, it was impossible to stay here, since the constant raids of the militias inflicted heavy losses on the army. So, in a month, while the French army was in Moscow, its number decreased by 30 thousand people. As a result, it was decided to retreat.

On October 7, preparations began for the retreat of the French army. One of the orders in this regard was to blow up the Kremlin. Fortunately, this idea did not work for him. Russian historians attribute this to the fact that, due to high humidity, the wicks got wet and out of order.

On October 19, Napoleon's army began to retreat from Moscow. The purpose of this retreat was to reach Smolensk, as it was the only major nearby city with significant food supplies. The road went through Kaluga, but this direction was blocked by Kutuzov. Now the advantage was on the side of the Russian army, so Napoleon decided to bypass. However, Kutuzov foresaw this maneuver and met the enemy army at Maloyaroslavets.

On October 24, the battle took place near Maloyaroslavets. During the day, this small town crossed 8 times from one side to the other. At the final stage of the battle, Kutuzov managed to take fortified positions, and Napoleon did not dare to storm them, since the numerical superiority was already on the side of the Russian army. As a result, the plans of the French were thwarted, and they had to retreat to Smolensk along the same road along which they went to Moscow. It was already scorched earth - no food and no water.

The retreat of Napoleon was accompanied by heavy losses. Indeed, in addition to clashes with Kutuzov's army, we also had to deal with partisan detachments, which daily attacked the enemy, especially its rear units. Napoleon's losses were terrible. On November 9, he managed to capture Smolensk, but this did not make a radical change in the course of the war. There was practically no food in the city, and it was not possible to organize a reliable defense. As a result, the army was subjected to almost continuous attacks by militias and local patriots. Therefore, Napoleon stayed in Smolensk for 4 days and decided to retreat further.

Crossing the Berezina river

The French were heading for the Berezina River (in modern Belarus) to force the river and go to the Neman. But on November 16, General Chichagov captured the city of Borisov, which is located on the Berezina. The position of Napoleon became catastrophic - for the first time an opportunity to be captured was actively looming for him, since he was surrounded.

On November 25, on the orders of Napoleon, the French army began to imitate the crossing south of Borisov. Chichagov bought into this maneuver and began the transfer of troops. At that moment, the French built two bridges across the Berezina and began the crossing on November 26-27. Only on November 28, Chichagov realized his mistake and tried to give battle to the French army, but it was too late - the crossing was completed, albeit with the loss of a huge number of human lives. While crossing the Berezina, 21 thousand Frenchmen died! The "Great Army" now numbered only 9 thousand soldiers, most of whom were already incapable of combat.

It was during this crossing that unusually strong frosts set in, which the French emperor referred to, justifying the huge losses. In the 29th bulletin, which was published in a newspaper in France, it was said that the weather was normal until November 10, but after that very severe cold came, for which no one was ready.

Crossing the Neman (from Russia to France)

The crossing of the Berezina showed that Napoleon's Russian campaign was over - he lost the Patriotic War in Russia in 1812. Then the emperor decided that his further stay with the army did not make sense, and on December 5 he left his troops and headed for Paris.

On December 16, in Kovno, the French army crossed the Niemen and left the territory of Russia. Its population was only 1600 people. The invincible army that inspired fear throughout Europe was almost completely destroyed by Kutuzov's army in less than 6 months.

Below is a graphical representation of Napoleon's retreat on the map.

Results of the Patriotic War of 1812

The Patriotic War of Russia with Napoleon was of great importance for all countries involved in the conflict. Largely thanks to these events, the undivided domination of England in Europe became possible. Such a development was foreseen by Kutuzov, who, after the flight of the French army in December, sent a report to Alexander 1, where he explained to the ruler that the war must be ended immediately, and the pursuit of the enemy and the liberation of Europe would play into the hands of strengthening the power of England. But Alexander did not heed the advice of his commander and soon began an overseas campaign.

Reasons for Napoleon's defeat in the war

Determining the main reasons for the defeat of the Napoleonic army, it is necessary to dwell on the most important, which are most often used by historians:

• A strategic mistake of the Emperor of France, who sat in Moscow for 30 days and was waiting for the representatives of Alexander I with pleas for the conclusion of peace. As a result, it began to get colder and run out of provisions, and the constant raids of partisan movements brought a turning point in the war.
• Unity of the Russian people. As usual, the Slavs rally in the face of great danger. So it was this time. For example, the historian Lieven writes that the main reason for the defeat of France lies in the massive nature of the war. Everyone fought for the Russians - both women and children. And all of this was ideologically based, which made the morale of the army very strong. The emperor of France did not break him.
• The reluctance of Russian generals to accept a decisive battle. Most historians forget about this, but what would have happened to Bagration's army if he had accepted a general battle at the beginning of the war, as Alexander 1 really wanted? 60 thousand of the army of Bagration against 400 thousand of the army of the aggressors. It would be an unconditional victory, and after it they would hardly have time to recover. Therefore, the Russian people should express their gratitude to Barclay de Tolly, who by his decision gave the order to retreat and unite the armies.
• The genius of Kutuzov. The Russian general, who was well trained by Suvorov, did not allow a single tactical miscalculation. It is noteworthy that Kutuzov never managed to defeat his enemy, but managed to tactically and strategically win the Patriotic War.
• General Frost is being used as an excuse. For the sake of fairness, it must be said that the frost had no significant effect on the final result, since at the time of the beginning of the anomalous frosts (mid-November) the outcome of the confrontation was decided - the great army was destroyed.