The scientist who created the geographical map. The history of the appearance of the first geographical maps. Some interesting facts about geographical maps

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF UKRAINE

NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

"KHARKIV POLYTECHNICAL INSTITUTE"

DEPARTMENT "INFORMATION SYSTEMS"

abstract

on the topic: "The history of the creation of geographical maps"

on the course "Cartography"

Completed:

1st year student Afonina Ekaterina Viktorovna Group VK -345 _______ Date of completion ____________________________

Checked by: ____________________________

Valday - 3

INTRODUCTION

Cartography is the science of mapping and understanding natural and socio-economic geosystems through maps as models. Cartography also exists as a field of technology and technology for the creation and use of cartographic products and as a branch of production that produces cartographic products (maps, atlases, globes, etc.). The development of computerization has expanded the understanding of cartography; its interests also include technologies for creating electronic maps, databases and banks of digital cartographic information.

Cartography originated in ancient times; there are even references to maps in the Bible. The first guides to cartography were compiled by ancient Greek. the scientist K. Ptolemy. Ancient cartographers created geographical maps that took into account the sphericity of the Earth and provided with a degree grid. The heyday of cartography falls on the Renaissance and the Great Geographical Discoveries. The authors of the famous world maps and the first atlases were the Dutch cartographers G. Mercator and A. Ortelius. In Russia, the development of cartography is associated with the names of S. U. Remezov, V. N. Tatishchev, F. F. Schubert, A. I. Mende, I. A. Strelbitsky, A. A. Ilyin, A. A. Tillo. In the 19th century. active differentiation of earth sciences contributed to the formation of thematic cartography. A significant contribution to Russian science was made by the works of F. N. Krasovsky, V. V. Kavraisky, N. A. Urmaev, G. A. Ginzburg on mathematical cartography, K. A. Salishchev, A. V. Gedymin, A. F. Aslanikashvili, A.A. Lyutoy on mapping, cartographic semiotics and general theory of cartography, and Yu.M. Shokalsky on marine cartography, N.N. Baransky and A.I. Preobrazhensky on economic and geographical mapping, M.I. s.-kh. mapping, I.P. Zarutskaya on thematic cartography, A.M.Berlyant on the theory and cartographic method of research, L.A. Goldenberg, A.V. Postnikov on the history of cartography, etc.

Part of the Roman road map (4th century). The scroll map shows the roads of the Roman Empire from Britain to India

There are several concepts that interpret the subject and method of cartography in different ways. The model-cognitive concept considers it as the science of cognizing reality through cartographic modeling, and the map itself as a model of reality. According to the communicative concept, cartography is considered the science of transmitting spatial information, and the map is a channel of information, a means of communication. The concept of cartosemiotics considers cartography as the science of the language of the map, and the map itself as a special text composed using conventional symbols (written in the language of the map). In the 1980s. An integral geoinformation concept began to form, according to which cartography is considered as the science of information and cartographic modeling and knowledge of geosystems, closely linking it with geoinformatics, earth sciences and society.

Map of Transylvania from "Atlas" by G. Mercator - J. Hondius (1607)

Modern cartography is an extensive system of scientific disciplines and technical branches. The general theory of cartography examines the subject and method of cartography, questions of the methodology of creating and using maps. Main theoretical developments are carried out within the framework of cartography - a general study of the map. The history of cartography studies the history of ideas, concepts, methods of science, the development of cartographic production, as well as old cartographic works. Mathematical cartography is a discipline within which cartographic projections are developed; Such a branch of cartography as the design and compilation of maps studies and develops methods and technologies for the cameral production and editing of maps of general geographic, nature, socio-economic, environmental, etc. Cartographic semiotics is a discipline dealing with systems of cartographic signs, the rules for their use. The design of maps (cartographic design) studies the theory and methods of artistic design of cartographic works, their shading and color design, including by means of computer graphics. Map publishing is a technical branch dealing with the preparation of maps and atlases for publication, their reproduction and printing design. The use of maps develops the theory and methods of using cartographic products (maps, atlases, globes, etc.) in practical, scientific, cultural, educational activities. Cartographic source study develops methods for assessing and systematizing cartographic sources, and cartographic toponymy studies geographical names, their semantic meaning from the point of view of correct transmission on maps. The objectives of this discipline include the normalization and standardization of names and terms shown on maps.

Fragment of a hypsometric map of European Russia, compiled by A.A. Tillo in 1889.

Many thematic branches have developed in cartography, such as general geographic, geological, soil, ethnographic mapping, etc. According to the method they belong to cartography, and according to the subject - to specific sciences (geology, soil science, ethnography). With the emergence of new branches of knowledge, new sections of thematic cartography appear - for example, geoecological, geopolitical, and electoral cartography have appeared relatively recently. In terms of purpose and practical orientation, such industries as educational, scientific, tourism, navigation (sea, aeronautical), engineering mapping, etc. are clearly distinguished.

There are two directions (scientific schools) in domestic cartography: geographical and engineering cartography. The geographic direction is primarily concerned with the mapping and study of geosystems and their components. At the same time, priority is given to interaction with geosciences and socio-economic disciplines. The School of Engineering Cartography focuses on technical aspects and links to geodetic sciences. Both schools closely cooperate in the cartographic and geodetic study of the country, in the creation of large works - maps and atlases.

Cartography has two-way contacts with many philosophical, natural and technical sciences, mathematics, geodesy and in particular with remote sensing. She takes advantage of their achievements, ideas and technologies, while providing them with the field to develop their theory and methodology. Since ancient times, there have been strong contacts between cartography and art. Drawing and engraving maps has always been akin to art, and the graphics and color on maps have been influenced by different artistic styles. The design decisions of modern cards are also influenced by trends in artistic design and machine graphics.

The most fruitful modern cartography interacts with geoinformatics and computer modeling. On the basis of the integration of the two sciences, a promising direction has been formed - geoinformation mapping. At the junction with telecommunications, Internet mapping has developed, that is, the creation and placement of maps, atlases in the worldwide electronic network.

The most significant advances in cartography are considered to be comprehensive scientific reference atlases. The Great Soviet Atlas of the World in 2 volumes is world famous. (1937-1940), Marine Atlas in 3 vols. (1950-1953), Physical and geographical atlas of the world (1964), Atlas of the peoples of the world (1964), Atlas of Antarctica (1966), Atlas of the oceans in 5 volumes. (1977–95), Atlas of the World (1st ed. 1954, 2nd - 1967, 3rd - 1999), Atlas of Snow and Ice Resources of the World (1997), Atlas "Nature and Resources of the Earth" in 2 vols. (1999). All rub. the country is covered with topographic maps in scales of 1:25 000 and 1: 100 000 - these are the largest unified blocks of maps of this scale in the world. Important achievements in the field of thematic mapping are series of maps of the nature of the USSR at scales of 1: 1,000,000 and 1: 2,500,000, maps for higher education (1st series - 1950-59, 2nd series started in 1974. ), Ecological-geographical map of the Russian Federation on a scale of 1: 4,000,000 (1996), etc.

HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY DEVELOPMENT

The ancient Greek scientist Anaximander is considered the creator of the first geographical map. In the VI century. BC. he drew the first map of the then known world, depicting the Earth in the form of a flat circle surrounded by water.

In the III century. BC. the ancient Greek scientist Eratosthenes wrote the book "Geography", for the first time using the terms "geography", "latitude" and "longitude". The book consisted of three parts. The first part was the history of geography; the second describes the shape and size of the Earth, the boundaries of land and oceans, the Earth's climates; in the third, the division of land into parts of the world and sphragedy are carried out - the prototypes of nature zones, as well as a description of individual countries. He also compiled a geographical map of the inhabited part of the Earth.

In the II century. AD the ancient Greek scientist Claudius Ptolemy summarized and systematized the knowledge of ancient scientists about the Earth and the Universe in his eight-volume essay "Guide to Geography", which during the I4 centuries enjoyed such great popularity among scientists, travelers, merchants that it was reprinted 42 times.

Ptolemy's "geography" contained, as already mentioned, all the information about the Earth available at that time. The maps attached to it were very accurate. They have a degree grid. Ptolemy compiled a detailed map of the Earth, the likes of which no one had ever created before. It depicted three parts of the world: Europe, Asia and Libya (as Africa was then called), the Atlantic (Western) Ocean, the Mediterranean (African) and Indian Seas. The rivers, lakes and peninsulas of Europe and North Africa, known at that time, were quite accurately depicted, which cannot be said about the lesser-known regions of Asia, recreated by dream on the basis of fragmentary, often contradictory geographical information and data. 8000 (eight thousand) points of the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean were plotted by coordinates; the position of some of them was determined astronomically, and most were plotted along the routes. The map is stretched out towards the east. Half of the map is allocated to famous countries. In its southern part, a huge continent is depicted, called the Unknown Land.

The first map of Russia called "The Big Drawing" was compiled, as scientists assume, in the second half of the 16th century. However, neither the "Big Drawing", and its subsequent supplemented and modified copies have not reached us. Only the appendix to the map has survived - "The Book of the Big Drawing". It contained interesting information about the nature and economic activity of the population, about the main roads and main rivers as routes of communication, about "cities" and various defensive structures on the borders of the Russian state.

The first globe was created by the German scientist Martin Beheim. His model of the Earth was published in I492, the year when Christopher Columbus went to the shores of fabulous India by the western route. The globe depicted Europe, Asia, Africa, which occupy about half of the entire surface of the Earth, and there are no North and South America, Antarctica, Australia. The Atlantic and Pacific oceans are presented as a single water basin, and in place of the Indian Ocean there are the East Indian Ocean and the Stormy South Sea, separated by a vast archielago of islands. The outlines of the oceans and continents are far from real, since the basis for the creation of the globe was based on information based on the ideas of ancient geographers and data from Arab and other travelers who visited the countries of the East, India and China.

The oldest maps found date back to a time when mankind did not even have an idea of ​​writing. If you think about it, then there is an explanation - it was much more important for the ancients to navigate the terrain than to keep chronicles and write something down.

It all began with images of the starry sky on the walls of the caves. It was in this amazing way that ancient people marked their location more than 18,000 years ago. This knowledge is used even now, leaving unfamiliar places, looking at the stellar constellations.

Only after millennia did the first images of the area appear. on stones, wood and animal skins that could be carried with you or passed on to others. But such maps usually covered a relatively small area: usually within 100 square kilometers.

The first attempts to create a map of the whole world appeared in about 5-3 millennia BC. But they rarely differed in any accuracy, since they did not take into account the fact that the earth is round.

Who is considered to be the ancestor of cartography

The meridians and parallels, symbolic and familiar even to schoolchildren, appeared only in the third century BC. They were created and mapped by the famous Greek scientist Eratosthenes... He is considered to be the "father" of modern cartography. Although many historians do not agree with this fact and consider as such a certain Anaximander and even Pythagoras.

The work of Eratosthenes was continued and improved already in the second century in Alexandria by the no less famous Ptolemy. It was he who came up with the idea to break the meridians and parallels into degrees. His cards have been unmatched for 12 centuries.

But the atlases familiar to us appeared only at the end of the 18th, at the beginning of the 19th centuries. This was facilitated by the development of the air industry, photography and the determination of the prime meridian.

Some interesting facts about geographical maps

The history of the emergence and development of cartography throughout the world was not monotonous:

1. The oldest map found in China was drawn on silk and created to mark the way for a hitman.
2. In ancient times, most people could easily draw a diagram of the immediate area.
3. Most Tuareg tribes create relief maps from wet sand.
4. Some Aboriginal tribes in Australia carve a map of their holdings on wooden weapons as a totem.
5. The nautical guides of ancient Polynesia were a complex weaving of threads, shells of mollusks, twigs and even stones. At the same time, they displayed all directions of the world, the smallest atolls and even the direction of currents.

This is just a tiny part of the unusual facts from the history of the appearance of geographical atlases. But even from it it is clear that the author of the very first map will never be found.

A person is always driven by curiosity. Thousands of years ago, discoverers, going further and further into unknown lands, created the first semblances of geographical maps, trying to put the relief they saw on papyrus sheets or clay tablets.

Probably the oldest found is a map from the Egyptian Museum in Turin, made on papyrus by order of Pharaoh Ramses IV in 1160 BC. e. This map was used by an expedition that, by order of the pharaoh, was looking for a stone for construction. The map familiar to our eyes appeared in ancient Greece half a thousand years before our era. Anaximander of Miletus is considered the first cartographer who created a map of the world known by that time.

The originals of his maps have not survived, but 50 years later they were restored and improved by another scientist from Miletus - Hecateus. Scientists have recreated this map according to the descriptions of Hecateus. It is easy to recognize the Mediterranean and Black Seas and nearby lands. But is it possible to determine distances from it? This requires a scale that was not yet available on ancient maps. For the unit of measurement of length, Hecateus used "days of sailing" on the sea and "days of transitions" on dry land, which, of course, did not add accuracy to the maps.

Ancient geographic maps also had other significant drawbacks. They distorted the image, because a spherical surface cannot be deployed on a plane without distortion. Try to gently peel off the orange peel and press it against the table surface: you won't be able to do this without tearing. In addition, they did not have a degree grid of parallels and meridians, without which it is impossible to accurately determine the location of the object. Meridians first appeared on the map of Eratosthenes in the 3rd century BC. e., however, they were carried through different distances. It is not without reason that Eratosthenes was called the "Father of Geography" as a mathematician among geographers. The scientist not only measured the dimensions of the Earth, but also used a cylindrical projection to display on the map. In this projection, there is less distortion, because the image is transferred from the ball to the cylinder. Modern maps are created in different projections - cylindrical, conical, azimuthal and others.

The most perfect maps of the ancient era are considered to be the geographical maps of Ptolemy, who lived in the 2nd century AD. e. in the Egyptian city of Alexandria. Claudius Ptolemy went down in the history of science thanks to two large works: the "Guide to Astronomy" in 13 books and the "Guide to Geography", which consisted of 8 books. 27 maps were added to the "Guide to Geography", among them - a detailed map of the world. No one created the best, either before Ptolemy, or 12 centuries after him! This map already had a degree grid. To create it, Ptolemy determined the geographical coordinates (latitude and longitude) of almost four hundred objects. The scientist determined the latitude (distance from the equator in degrees) by the height of the Sun at noon with the help of a gnomon, longitude (degree distance from the initial meridian) - by the difference in the time of observations of the lunar eclipse from different points.

In medieval Europe, the works of ancient scholars were forgotten, but they survived in the Arab world. There, Ptolemy's maps were published in the 15th century and republished almost 50 more times! Perhaps it was these cards that helped Columbus on his famous voyage. Ptolemy's authority grew so much that even collections of maps for a long time were called "Ptolemies". Only in the 16th century after the publication of the Atlas of the World by Gerard Mercator, on the cover of which Atlas was drawn holding the Earth, the collections of maps were called “atlases”.

In ancient China, geographic maps were also created. Interestingly, the first written mention of a geographic map is not related to geography. In the III century BC. e. the Chinese throne was occupied by the Qin dynasty. The rival in the struggle for power, Crown Prince Dan, sent a hired assassin to the ruler of the dynasty with a map of his lands drawn on silk fabric. The mercenary hid a dagger in a bundle of silk. The story tells that the assassination attempt failed.

In the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries, images of America and Australia, the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans appeared on the maps of the world. Errors on maps often turned out to be a tragedy for navigators. Having explored the shores of Alaska, Vitus Bering's large Kamchatka expedition in the 18th century did not have time to return to Kamchatka by the beginning of the autumn storms. Dreamer Bering spent three weeks of precious time in search of the map-marked, but non-existent Land of Gama. His sailing ship "Saint Peter", broken, with sailors dying from scurvy, docked on the deserted island, where the famous Commander rested forever. "My blood boils in me every time," wrote one of Bering's assistants, "when I remember the shameless deception caused by a mistake on the map."

Today cartography is fully digitalized. To create the most detailed maps, not only ground geodetic instruments are used - theodolite, level, but also air laser scanning, satellite navigation, digital aerial photography.

Illustration: depositphotos.com | Kuzmafoto

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History of the geographical map. completed: student of grade 8 and MBOU "Gymnasium" No. 5 Krezhkov Nikita

Purpose: to get acquainted with the history of the creation of a geographical map

Introduction. Cartography is the science of mapping and understanding natural and socio-economic geosystems through maps as models. Cartography originated in ancient times; there are even references to maps in the Bible. The first guides to cartography were compiled by ancient Greek. the scientist K. Ptolemy. The heyday of cartography falls on the Renaissance and the Great Geographical Discoveries. The authors of the famous world maps and the first atlases were the Dutch cartographers G. Mercator and A. Ortelius. In Russia, the development of cartography is associated with the names of S. U. Remezov, V. N. Tatishchev, F. F. Schubert,

"MAP - LANGUAGE OF GEOGRAPHY" tells about objects; you can find out the location; you can measure the distance; shows the state of objects.

A map is a reduced, generalized image of the earth's surface on a plane, built according to mathematical laws using special designations.

First acquaintance with the map.

The image of the earth's surface in antiquity Drawing on a rock Drawing of the Ancient Egyptians

Paintings on old maps It is clearly seen that the area was shown with the help of well-understood sketches.

Map of Transylvania from "Atlas" by G. Mercator - J. Hondius (1607)

The ancient Greek scientist Anaximander is considered the creator of the first geographical map. In the VI century. BC. he drew the first map of the then known world, depicting the Earth in the form of a flat circle surrounded by water. In the III century. BC. the ancient Greek scientist Eratosthenes wrote the book "Geography", for the first time using the terms "geography", "latitude" and "longitude". The book consisted of three parts. The first part was the history of geography; the second describes the shape and size of the Earth, the boundaries of land and oceans, the Earth's climates; in the third, the division of land into parts of the world and sphragedy are carried out - the prototypes of nature zones, as well as a description of individual countries. He also compiled a geographical map of the inhabited part of the Earth.

In the II century. AD the ancient Greek scientist Claudius Ptolemy summarized and systematized the knowledge of ancient scientists about the Earth and the Universe in his eight-volume essay "Guide to Geography", which during the I4 centuries enjoyed such great popularity among scientists, travelers, merchants that it was reprinted 42 times.

Ptolemy compiled a detailed map of the Earth, the likes of which no one had ever created before. It depicted three parts of the world: Europe, Asia and Libya (as Africa was then called), the Atlantic (Western) Ocean, the Mediterranean (African) and Indian Seas. The rivers, lakes and peninsulas of Europe and North Africa, known at that time, were quite accurately depicted.

The first map of Russia called "The Big Drawing" was compiled, as scientists assume, in the second half of the 16th century. However, neither the "Big Drawing", and its subsequent supplemented and modified copies have not reached us. Only the appendix to the map has survived - "The Book of the Big Drawing". It contained interesting information about the nature and economic activity of the population, about the main roads and main rivers as routes of communication, about "cities" and various defensive structures on the borders of the Russian state.

Peter I considered it a matter of state importance to draw up a map of Russia, which would help in the development of little-known regions of the country, in particular in the study of the sea route from Novaya Zemlya to the "Tatar Sea" (obviously, the Pacific Ocean), where he wanted to establish shipyards for the construction of ships, so that send them to China, Japan and other countries.

Conclusion. Geographic maps don't just help us get from point A to point B. They can serve as a policy tool and a snapshot of history, and can reflect the fears and prejudices of their era, says historian Jerry Brotton. One of the amazing things about geographic maps is that people are reluctant to agree with the most basic fact of cartography, namely that a map cannot be a 100% objective, accurate representation of our world. Talk to any cartographer - and he will tell you that the algorithm for turning a globe into a flat image always leads to certain distortions, to manipulation and selectivity. Simply because you cannot turn a circle into a square. But for most people who use maps day in and day out - whether it's satellite navigation, online cartography, a mobile app, or even a plain old paper map - the idea that a map is just a partial, selective snapshot of the Earth is simply unbearable.

The map is more important than the text, as it often speaks much brighter, Semenov-Tien-Shansky

First cards

Geographic maps have a long history.

Once upon a time, travelers on a long journey did not have maps or navigation devices - nothing that would allow them to determine their location. I had to rely on my memory, the Sun, the Moon and the stars. People made sketches of places they managed to visit - this is how the first maps appeared.

Since ancient times, maps have been one of the most important documents for any state. The rulers of many countries organized expeditions to explore unknown lands and the main goal of all travelers was, first of all, the compilation of detailed geographical maps with the drawing of the most important landmarks on them: rivers, mountains, villages and cities.

The modern name "CARD" comes from the Latin "charte", meaning "letter". Translated, "chartes" means "a sheet or scroll of papyrus for writing."

It is difficult to determine when the first cartographic images appeared. Among the archaeological finds on all continents, one can see primitive drawings of the area made on stones, bone plates, birch bark, a tree, the age of which scientists determine at about 15 thousand years.

The simplest cartographic drawings were already known in the conditions of primitive society, even before the birth of writing (appendix). This is evidenced by primitive cartographic images of peoples who, at the time of their discovery or study, were at low levels of social development and did not have a written language (Eskimos of North America, Nanai of the Lower Amur, Chukchi and Oduls of northeast Asia, Micronesians of Oceania, etc.) ).

These drawings, made on wood, bark, etc. and often distinguished by great likelihood, they served to satisfy the needs arising from the conditions of the general labor of people: to indicate the paths of migrations, hunting places, etc.

Preserved cartographic images, carved on the rocks in the era of primitive society. Particularly remarkable are the Bronze Age rock carvings in the Camonica Valley (Northern Italy), and among them is a plan showing cultivated fields, paths, streams and irrigation canals. This plan is one of the oldest cadastral plans.

Before their appearance, oral stories were the main source of information about the location of a particular object. But as people began to travel more and more distant distances frequently, it became necessary to store information for a long time.

The earliest surviving cartographic images include, for example, the city plan on the wall of Chatal Huyuk (Turkey), dating from about 6200 BC. e., map-like image on a silver vase from Maikop (about 3000 BC), cartographic images on clay tablets from Mesopotamia (about 2300 BC), numerous petroglyph maps of the Valcamonica in Italy (1900 -1200 BC), the Egyptian map of gold mines (1400 BC), etc. From Babylon, through the Greeks, the Western world inherited the sixties numeral system, based on the number 60, in which geographic coordinates are expressed today.

Early cartographers themselves were collecting descriptions of various parts of the world known by that time, interviewing sailors, soldiers and adventurers and displaying the data obtained on a single map, and filling the missing places with their imagination or honestly leaving blank white spots.

The first maps contained a huge number of inaccuracies: at first, no one even thought about the severity of measurements, scales, topographic signs. But even such cards were highly valued. With their help, it was possible to repeat the path traversed by the discoverer, and avoid the troubles that many travelers were waiting for.

Since the VI century. BC e., the main contribution to the technology of creating maps in the ancient world was made by the Greeks, Romans and Chinese.

Unfortunately, Greek maps of that time have not survived, and the contribution of the Greeks to the development of cartography can only be estimated from textual sources - the works of Homer, Herodotus, Aristotle, Strabo and other ancient Greeks - and subsequent cartographic reconstructions.

Greek contributions to cartography consisted in the use of geometry to create maps, in the development of cartographic projections, and in the measurement of the earth.

It is believed that the ancient Greek scientist Anaximander is considered the Creator of the first geographical map. In the VI century. BC. he drew the first map of the then known world, depicting the Earth in the form of a flat circle surrounded by water.

The ancient Greeks were well aware of the spherical shape of the Earth, as they observed its rounded shadow during periods of lunar eclipses, saw ships emerge from the horizon and disappear behind it.

The Greek astronomer Eratosthenes (circa 276-194 BC) as early as the 3rd century BC e. quite accurately calculated the size of the globe. Eratosthenes wrote Geography, first using the terms geography, latitude and longitude. The book consisted of three parts. The first part was the history of geography; the second describes the shape and size of the Earth, the boundaries of land and oceans, the Earth's climates; in the third, the division of land into parts of the world and sphragedy are carried out - the prototypes of nature zones, as well as a description of individual countries. He also compiled a geographical map of the inhabited part of the Earth.

As noted above, Eratosthenes proved the sphericity of the Earth and measured the radius of the globe, and Hipparchus (about 190-125 BC) invented and used a system of meridians and parallels for cartographic projections.

In the Roman Empire, cartography was put at the service of practice. Road maps were created for military, commercial and administrative needs. The most famous of them is the so-called Peitinger's table (copy of a map of the 4th century), which is a scroll of 11 glued sheets of parchment 6 m 75 cm long and 34 cm wide.It shows the road network of the Roman Empire from the British Isles to the mouth of the Ganges, which is about 104,000 km, with rivers, mountains, settlements.

The culmination of the cartographic works of the Roman period was the eight-volume essay "Guide to Geography" by Claudius Ptolemy (90-168), where he summarized and systematized the knowledge of ancient scientists about the Earth and the Universe; indicating the coordinates of many geographic points in latitude and longitude; which outlines the basic principles of creating maps and provides the geographical coordinates of 8000 points. And, which during the I4 centuries enjoyed such great popularity among scientists, travelers, merchants that it was reprinted 42 times.

Ptolemy's "Geography" contained, as already mentioned, all the information about the Earth available at that time. The maps attached to it were very accurate. They have a degree grid.

Ptolemy compiled a detailed map of the Earth, the likes of which no one had ever created before. It depicted three parts of the world: Europe, Asia and Libya (as Africa was then called), the Atlantic (Western) Ocean, the Mediterranean (African) and Indian Seas.

The rivers, lakes and peninsulas of Europe and North Africa, known at that time, were quite accurately depicted, which cannot be said about the lesser-known regions of Asia, recreated by dream on the basis of fragmentary, often contradictory geographical information and data.

8000 (eight thousand) points from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean were plotted according to coordinates; the position of some of them was determined astronomically, and most were plotted along the routes.

The map is stretched out towards the east. Half of the map is allocated to famous countries. In its southern part, a huge continent is depicted, called the Unknown Land.

Cartography in China developed independently of European traditions. The oldest surviving documents from the country's official surveying and mapping dates back to the Zhou Dynasty (1027-221 BC). And the most ancient Chinese maps that have survived are considered to be maps on bamboo plates, silk and paper, found in the Fanmatan graves of the Qin (221-207 BC) and Western Han (206 BC - 25 g) graves. AD) dynasties, as well as in the Mawandu graves of the Western Han Dynasty.

These maps are comparable to topographic maps in terms of their image and detail. In terms of accuracy, they significantly exceeded even later European maps.

The main Chinese contribution to the creation of maps was the invention no later than the 2nd century. BC e. paper on which maps began to be drawn, and a rectangular grid of coordinates, which was first used by the great Chinese astronomer and mathematician Zhang Heng (78-139 AD). In the future, Chinese cartographers invariably used a rectangular grid of coordinates.

A century later, the Chinese cartographer Pei Xiu (224-271) developed the principles of mapping based on the use of a rectangular grid of coordinates, as well as the principles of measuring distances based on the laws of geometry.

Invention by the Chinese in the VIII century. typography allowed them to be the first in world history to start printing maps. The first surviving printed Chinese map dates from 1155.