Peoples of northeastern Siberia. Panorama of peoples on the background of Europe. Peoples of Northeastern Europe (Series I). Housing of small peoples
Face to face
Can't see faces.
The big is seen from a distance.
Sergey Yesenin
We examined the reflection of the face of the European gene pool in three mirrors - the Y-chromosome, mitochondrial DNA and the autosomal genome. However, even such a three-dimensional mapping will still be incomplete if we do not turn from Europe as a whole to the faces of individual peoples - to the genetic ties of this or that people of Europe with the rest of the European world. Such consideration allows not only to see the place of this or that ethnic gene pool among its near and far neighbors. It gives more - to see exactly how the overall picture of the European gene pool is formed from individual puzzles. Perhaps this will make it possible to discern the paths of history in the addition of this overall picture. For this purpose, the Y-chromosome mirror is most useful: its information content is comparable to that of genome-wide autosomal panels, and the palette of studied populations is incomparably richer.
The genetic portrait of individual peoples against the background of the entire European gene pool is best described genetic distance maps. They show how the gene pool of a given people fits into the general panorama of the peoples of Europe. Based on the totality of haplogroups, genetic distance maps show for a given people how peculiar it is, with whom it is similar, from whom it differs, how far its genetic ties with other peoples of Europe and nearby regions extend.
Genetic distance maps are created like this. First, a series of maps is built - each haplogroup has its own map. Each map is a numerical matrix - a very dense grid that evenly covers the entire mapped space. In each of the many grid nodes (on the maps provided, almost 200 thousand grid nodes cover the mapped territory), the frequency of a given haplogroup in a given geographical point is recorded. Then the population group of interest to us is selected (it is called the reference group) - say, the Poles - from which the genetic distances to each node of the grid will be calculated (including the range of the Poles themselves). The average frequencies of haplogroups among the Poles are also taken - and for each point in Europe, the genetic distance from these frequencies among the Poles to the frequencies at a given point on the map is calculated. These data are enough to calculate the genetic distance from the frequencies of haplogroups among the Poles to the frequencies of haplogroups in each point of Europe. These genetic distances are mapped. Then we take, for example, the Serbs as a reference population - and repeat all the same actions with the cards. And we get a map of the genetic landscape showing the degree of similarity of the Y-chromosomal gene pool of the Serbs with the Y-chromosomal gene pool of each European population. And so for any population chosen by us - an ethnos or a subethnos.
However, what to do with the fact that different populations are studied according to different sets haplogroups? Of course, when constructing genogeographic maps, interpolated values are calculated for each map point, even if there are few control points (directly studied populations). But if we want to most accurately describe the gene pool of all populations using a single panel of haplogroups when building maps of genetic distances, then the panel of haplogroups begins to shrink like shagreen leather. Our team uses an extensive panel of SNP markers (44 main and 32 additional haplogroups, as well as 32 more “recent” haplogroups, as described in section 1.3), and we studied most of the populations of Eastern Europe using this wide panel. But in order to evenly represent all corners of Europe on the maps of genetic distances, at this stage of the study of the European gene pool, this panel, unfortunately, we had to reduce to eight main European haplogroups - E1b-M35, G-M201, I1-M253, I2a-P37, J-M304, N1c-M178, R1a-M198, R1b-M269.
Further research and mass screening of populations in Europe on the sub-branches of these haplogroups, discovered due to the full sequencing of the Y-chromosome, will gradually refine these maps. When reading any map, one must remember that this model was created for the amount of information available on a given time slice: both the array of populations and the panel of haplogroups are limited. Therefore, it is important to pay attention not to the details of the relief, but to the most general and stable structures of the genetic landscape.
Maps of genetic distances can be built for all the peoples of Europe. In this monograph, we will present not all, but many - 36 maps of genetic distances from 36 ethnic groups and sub-ethnic groups of Europe, the most important for the rest of the chapters of the book. These 36 genetic landscapes are grouped into six series:
Series 1: Peoples of Northeast Europe(Karelians and Vepsians, Estonians, Komi-Izhora, Komi Priluz, Lithuanians, Latvians, northern Russians, Finns);
Series 2: Eastern and Western Slavs(Central and Southern Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Belarusians of Polissya, Poles, Kashubians, Slovaks, Czechs, Sorbs) ;
Series 3: Non-Slavic Peoples of Eastern Europe(Bashkirs, Kazan Tatars, Mishars, Chuvashs, Moksha and Erzya);
Series 4: in the north of the Balkans(Moldovans, Romanians, Gagauz, Hungarians, Slovenes);
Series 5: South Slavs(Macedonians, Serbs, Croats, Bosnians, Herzegovina);
Series 6: Framing Europe(Albanians, Swedes, Nogais).
5.1. PEOPLES OF NORTH-EASTERN EUROPE (SERIESI)
This series includes eight maps of genetic distances - not only from the gene pools of ethnic groups (Karelians and Vepsians, Estonians, Latvians, Lithuanians and Finns), but also from individual sub-ethnic groups (Komi Izhma, Komi Priluz, Russian North). Almost all of these maps are united not only by the geographical region, but also by the similarity of the genetic landscape. At the same time, the linguistic affiliation of these peoples is striking in its diversity. There are also Western Finnish-speaking peoples (the Baltic-Finnish branch of the Finno-Ugric languages) - Karelians, Estonians, Finns; and Eastern Finnish-speaking Komi (Permian branch of the Finno-Ugric languages); and Slavs - northern Russians; and Balts - Latvians and Lithuanians. And yet, their gene pools are largely similar. To verify this, consider the entire series of maps - eight maps of genetic distances from each of the eight reference gene pools (Fig. 5.2-5.9). And in order to see the differences between each of the eight maps from the generalized genetic landscape of North-Eastern Europe, we present middle card genetic distances (Figure 5.1). Such a generalized landscape was obtained as a result of simple arithmetic operations with map matrices: summing all eight maps (for each point of the map, the values of eight haplogroup maps at this point were summed) and dividing the resulting total map by eight.
MAPPING SIMILARITY WITH THE GENE POOL OF KARELIANS AND VEPS (Fig. 5.2)
The main range of gene pools similar to Karelians and Vepsians (when calculating the “reference” frequencies of Y-haplogroups, along with data on Karelians and Vepsians, a small sample of Izhorians was also taken into account) is clearly outlined geographically (Fig. 5.2). The most genetically close populations (that is, the genetic distances to them from Karelians and Vepsians are the smallest) are colored with intense green tones. These are genetic distances in the interval 0 An important difference between the map of the genetic landscape of Karelians and Veps and other maps of this series is found not in the east, but in the northwest. Here, the area of genetic similarity with the Karelians and Veps knows no administrative boundaries and permeates with a “yellow” corridor of populations that are still genetically similar to the Karelians and Veps (0.05 It is also worth noting that the group of “orange” intervals (genetic distances from Karelians and Vepsians d≈0.2), showing populations that are already genetically distant, but still not completely alien to the gene pool of Karelians and Vepsians, covers a significant part of Fennoscandia, Eastern and Central Europe . At the same time, Western and Southern Europe, the Ciscaucasia, the Caspian region and even the Trans-Urals are genetically as far as possible from the gene pools of Karelians and Vepsians (intensely red tones). MAPPING SIMILARITY TO THE ESTONIAN GENE POOL (Fig. 5.3) Turning to the map of genetic distances from Estonians (Fig. 5.3), we see the same general patterns as on the map of distances from Karelians and Vepsians (Fig. 5.2). However, the area of genetically closest populations, colored in intense green tones (the smallest genetic distances from Estonians in the interval 0 MAPPING SIMILARITY TO THE KOMI-ZYRYAN GENE POOL (fig. 5.4 and 5.5) Komi populations are traditionally divided into two ethnic communities - Komi-Zyryans and Komi-Permyaks, although they have a common ethnonym, and the border between their dialects does not coincide with the administrative one. A more southern community is made up of Komi-Permyaks, who now live in the Perm Territory. A more northern community is the Komi-Zyryans living in the Komi Republic (they are often called simply Komi). The origins of the formation of the Komi date back to the 2nd millennium BC. in the area where the Oka and Kama flow into the Volga. In the course of the following centuries, the general area of the Komi steadily expanded to the north, and under the pressure of Novgorodian colonization, it shifted to the east. The Komi settled along the valleys of large rivers, assimilating various groups of an older population - both the Baltic Finns and other Ural-speaking groups, as indicated by toponymy data. There are nine ethnographic groups among the Komi-Zyryans. One of them is the Izhma Komi (Fig. 5.4), who live compactly in the Izhma region in the north of the Komi Republic (in the basin of the middle reaches of the Pechora and its tributaries) and, unlike other Komi groups, are engaged in nomadic reindeer husbandry, which they adopted from the Nenets . The formation of the ethnographic group of the Komi-Izhma is attributed to the end of the 16th century - not only different groups of the Komi (Vym, Udor) and northern Russians, but also the Nenets took part in its formation. The bulk of the Komi-Izhemtsy belongs to the White Sea anthropological type. Another ethnographic group - Priluzsky Komi (Fig. 5.5) - lives on the other - southern - end of the Komi-Zyryan area: in the very south of the Komi Republic in the Luza basin and in the upper Letka, where it already borders on the Perm Territory and the Kirov Region. However, despite the geography, the economic and cultural type, and the adaptive type (the Izhma Komi are classified as the Arctic adaptive type), the maps of genetic distances from both ethnographic groups of the Komi-Zyryans are surprisingly similar. A dark green area of minimum distances (the greatest similarity) between both Komi groups is highlighted. They are separated by the population of Russians in the Krasnoborsky district of the Arkhangelsk region, which differs sharply (orange tones) from them, as well as from the main array of northern Russian populations (Fig. 5.8). With all other northern Russian populations, the Komi show the greatest similarity (the brightest green tones on the map). This is especially clearly seen on the map of genetic distances from the Priluzian Komi (Fig. 5.5), which differ from the gene pool of their southern geographical neighbors and genetically clearly gravitate towards the northern, albeit geographically more distant, gene pools. However, let's not forget that such a genetic proximity of the southernmost and northern Komi groups may indicate the preservation of the unity of only the Komi Y-chromosomal gene pool: it is possible that mainly wives were taken from other ethnic groups, and the influx of male Y-chromosomes from them was small. The possibility of "gender asymmetry in marriages" must always be taken into account when we analyze only one of the uniparental genetic systems - either the Y chromosome or mtDNA. With this exception - the shifts of the smallest genetic distances (bright green) to the east and north - the area of gene pools genetically close to the Komi, colored in light green and yellow tones, is very similar to the landscape found above among the Karelians, Veps and Estonians. This involuntarily brings to mind the works of paleoanthropologists (Khartanovich, 1991), who pointed out that, according to craniological data, the Komi-Zyryans gravitate towards the Karelians, and not to the Komi-Permyaks. However, only a future detailed study of the gene pools of the entire diversity of the populations of the Komi-Zyryans and Komi-Permyaks (as well as the Komi-Yazvinians, peculiar in language) will make it possible to accurately determine the degree of their genetic similarity both with each other and with other peoples of North-Eastern Europe and the Urals. MAPPING SIMILARITY WITH THE GENE POOL OF LETHUNS AND LITHUANIANS (Fig. 5.6 and 5.7) On the above four maps (Fig. 5.2 - 5.5), the "reference" gene pools, from which genetic distances were calculated, were the populations of the Finno-Ugric peoples. Now we have maps of genetic distances from two Baltic-speaking peoples - Latvians (Fig. 5.6) and Lithuanians (Fig. 5.7). Linguistically, they no longer belong to the Ural family, but to the Indo-European. However, despite such huge linguistic differences, we again see the same genetic landscape that does not even require additional description. It is closest to the genetic landscape of neighboring Estonians (Fig. 5.3). The only difference between these two landscapes is that the area of populations genetically close to the Baltic peoples narrows as much as possible in the northwest and northeast, remaining wide in the south and thus approaching the shape of a triangle. It is assumed that speakers of the Baltic languages were previously distributed over a much wider area - from the northeast of modern Poland to the upper reaches of the Volga, the Oka basin, the middle Dnieper and Pripyat. Therefore, the coincidence of the genetic landscapes of Karelians, Vepsians, Komi, Estonians and Latvians allows us to raise the question of the reasons for such a coincidence. There is a change in linguistic affiliation (or Balts, or Finno-Ugric peoples, or both) while maintaining some common ancient gene pool. Maybe there was some more ancient gene pool, the linguistic belonging of which we do not even have hypotheses, and it was he who became the genetic substrate that still defines the landscape of the most diverse gene pools of North-Eastern Europe? MAPPING SIMILARITY TO THE NORTHERN RUSSIAN GENE POOL (Fig. 5.8) These doubts and reflections are further strengthened by the map of genetic distances from northern Russians (Fig. 5.8): the gene pool of the heirs of Novgorod Rus' completely repeats all the patterns described above. The genetic originality of the northern Russian populations has been firmly established. But it has become a common cliché to associate this originality only with the Finno-Ugric substratum. Therefore, let us note that the map of genetic distances from the northern Russians is still more similar to the genetic landscapes of the Balts - Latvians and Lithuanians, and not the Finnish-speaking peoples. This indicates that future studies of the paleoDNA of the Mesolithic and Neolithic populations may make adjustments to the customary interpretation of the genetic identity of the Russian North simply as a legacy of the gene pool of the Finnish-speaking population. Perhaps we will have the opportunity to see the connection of the gene pool of the Russian North with the Balts, who, in turn, inherited the gene pool of the most ancient population of the periglacial zone of Eastern Europe. MAPPING SIMILARITY TO THE FINNISH GENE POOL (Fig. 5.9) This call for caution in interpretation is also consistent with the most peculiar map of this series - the genetic distances from the "most Finnish-speaking" people - that is, from the Finns themselves (Fig. 5.9). Their genetic landscape is not similar to any of the considered ones: we do not see any similarity with the considered gene pools of North-Eastern Europe at all. The area of similar values fits in Fennoscandia, and even then it occupies only half of it: both the easternmost outskirts of Fennoscandia and the vast southwestern part of Norway and Sweden turned out to be genetically far from the Finnish gene pool. And only the outlines of the orange area of genetically distant populations (but still not the most remote gene pools) repeat the outlines of the similarity zone on the other maps of this series. Such a pronounced originality of the genetic landscape of the Finns is in conflict with their close linguistic kinship with other peoples of the Baltic-Finnish group (formed historically recently - in the 1st millennium BC) and geographical location - the Finns naturally enter the region of North-Eastern Europe . It is traditionally believed that the peculiarity of the Finns gene pool (expressed, among other things, in the presence of a special “Finnish” spectrum of hereditary diseases) is due to the fact that the population went through a demographic “bottleneck”, which led to powerful effects of gene drift. The Finns, as it were, found themselves on the periphery of both the Finno-Ugric and the Scandinavian worlds. Let me remind you that in Andersen, when looking for the palaces of the Snow Queen, the Laplander sends Gerda to the very end of the world - to the Finn. There is nowhere else to go. Thus, a persistent genetic landscape characteristic of most peoples of North-Eastern Europe has been identified. But these peoples are not united either by belonging to a common language group or by belonging to a common region (the Finns undoubtedly belong to the same region, but their map is different). Then what unites them? Preservation ("conservation") of the gene pool of the most ancient population of the periglacial zone of Eastern Europe? The temptation to put forward such a hypothesis is great. After all, even if we exclude genetically sharply different (drifted?) Finns from the generalized map of the genetic landscape, and rebuild the map based on a series of seven maps (Fig. 5.10), we will get the same stable genetic landscape of North-Eastern Europe (as on Fig. 5.1), only painted in even brighter tones of small genetic differences. It can be considered as a typical, standard, "reference" genetic landscape of the indigenous population of North-Eastern Europe. Anyone, even superficially familiar with genogeography, will immediately say: these maps are united by a haplogroup N1c-M178. Yes, it is its high frequencies that are characteristic of all the considered gene pools, and the range of these high frequencies forms an arc curved to the north from the Baltic to the Urals. But its frequency is especially high among the Finns (more than half of the gene pool), and the originality of the genetic landscape of the Finns is largely due to the increase in the frequency of this haplogroup. Other peoples of the north of Eastern Europe have frequencies N1c-M178 more moderate. But let's not forget that the cards are not built one at a time. N1c-M178, but according to the data on the totality of the main European haplogroups, the frequencies of which vary significantly within North-Eastern Europe. Therefore, the identified zones of similarity and their features are determined not only by the haplogroup N1c, but to the entire Y-chromosomal gene pool. But still, the role of this North Eurasian haplogroup is especially great. Therefore, its in-depth study will allow us to continue the story told in this section. It will not be long to continue: genome-wide studies of the Y-chromosome have already made it possible to isolate haplogroups in the Eurasian area N1c, at least eight geographically confined branches, which have already been screened for a number of Eurasian populations. As soon as the number and range of European populations for which the frequencies of new branches of the haplogroup are determined N1c, reaches a reliable level for creating full-fledged maps of genetic distances, we will update this series of maps by including maps of new branches in the range of analyzed haplogroups N1c and then, I hope, we will be able to identify various migration flows in the genetic landscape of North-Eastern Europe. Constitutional norms and international legal regulations concerning the indigenous peoples of the North are implemented through federal legislation. The Federal Law of April 30, 1999 "On Guaranteeing the Rights of Indigenous Peoples of the Russian Federation" has a basic meaning. It includes norms that link the traditional way of life of small peoples with nature management, recognize the presence of their original habitat as a historically established area within which peoples carry out their livelihoods (clauses 2 and 3 of article 1) and oblige public authorities to ensure the rights of small peoples peoples on the original socio-economic and cultural development, protection of their original habitat, traditional way of life and management (Article 4). The Federal Law of July 29, 2000 "On the General Principles for Organizing Communities of Indigenous Peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East of the Russian Federation" grants members of indigenous communities the right to use objects of the animal and plant world, minerals and other natural resources for the needs of management and traditional crafts. resources (part 2 of article 12). The most complete relations related to the right of the indigenous peoples of the North to land and other resources are regulated by the Federal Law of May 7, 2001 "On the Territories of Traditional Nature Management of the Indigenous Minorities of the North, Siberia and the Far East of the Russian Federation". According to the meaning of the said law, the allocation of territories of traditional nature management is an organizational and legal form of realization by small peoples of the right to land and related rights. It should also be noted that incomes (excluding wages of employees) received by members of duly registered tribal, family communities of small peoples of the North, engaged in traditional sectors of management, from the sale of products obtained by them as a result of traditional types of fishing, are not taxed. on the basis of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation of July 24, 2002, part 2 of article 217. A number of federal laws on natural resources contain additional norms affecting the interests of the indigenous peoples in the use of land and other natural resources. Among them are the Federal Law of June 19, 1996 "On the Fundamentals of State Regulation of the Socio-Economic Development of the North of the Russian Federation", "On Specially Protected Natural Territories" of July 12, 1996, "On the Wildlife" of April 24, 1995 G., "On the subsoil" of March 3, 1995, etc. Federal regulation of the use of land and other natural resources carried out by the indigenous peoples of the North is supplemented by regional legislation. The Koryak Autonomous Okrug adopted a normative act on the territories of traditional nature management. In the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, on February 3, 1999, the Okrug Duma adopted the law "On state regulation of marine fur hunting in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug." The legislative base of the Kamchatka region in relation to fishing and sea mammal hunting is represented by the laws of the Kamchatka region "On the fauna of the Kamchatka region", "On fisheries and aquatic biological resources in the Kamchatka region". The legislation of the Koryak Autonomous Okrug regarding the rights of national enterprises is more developed than in the Kamchatka region. In 1998, by a resolution of the Duma of the Koryak Autonomous District, the regulation "On the national enterprise and the main directions of traditional types of folk crafts" was approved. In the same year, the law of the Koryak Autonomous Okrug "On Fishing in the Koryak Autonomous Okrug" was adopted, in which the main principle indicates "the priority of the indigenous peoples of the North in the use of fish resources along with other natural resources, which together form the basis of their livelihoods in their places of residence" . At the regional level, there is also the problem of Russian old-timers of Siberia in areas where the indigenous and newcomers have lived in the neighborhood since the 17th - 18th centuries and whose dependence on the natural resources of the territories is almost equivalent. The problem of Russian old-timers is solved in the context of nationality: for example, the Kamchadals of the Kamchatka and Magadan regions, whom many scientists and residents themselves considered as an ethnographic group of Russians, were recently recognized as a separate people of the North, thanks to many years of appeals from residents to the legislative institutions of these regions. They were able to prove their "rootedness" in this land and get legislative access to resources and benefits for their use. The guarantors of the rights of indigenous peoples in the Russian Federation are the Commission on Human Rights under the President of the Russian Federation, the Commissioner for Human Rights in the Russian Federation, the Prosecutor's Office of the Russian Federation. They guarantee not only the equality of peoples and the equality of human rights and freedoms, but also special rights in the socio-economic, cultural and other spheres. Indigenous peoples of the Far East: economy, life, culture Ethnically, the territory of settlement of the Far Eastern aborigines represented several large areas, each of which has its own specifics, due to the geographical environment, the process of the historical development of peoples, their belonging to a particular language group, the production activities of peoples and relationships. The Far North-East of Asia - the Chukchi-Kamchatka ethnographic region - is inhabited by the Chukchi (self-name - Chavchu); Eskimos (self-name - Innuit); Koryaks (self-name - namylan, chauch), Itelmens (Kamchadals), Aleuts (Unchans). The formation of these peoples, according to sources, began during the protracted Neolithic period. Chukchi, Koryaks, Itelmens are the autochthonous population of Chukotka, Kamchatka. Their ancestors - the natives of the Far Northeast - were continental hunters of wild deer, and also hunted sea animals and were engaged in fishing. Inter-ethnic and intra-ethnic relations were poorly developed. At the beginning of a new era, the Eskimos appeared in the Far Northeast with their specialized culture of marine hunting. They influenced the production activities, culture and language of the Chukchi and Koryaks. In turn, the language of the Eskimos absorbed a significant amount of the Chukchi-Kamchatka vocabulary. According to I. S. Vdovin, with the advent of the Eskimos, conditions appeared for the gradual development of the exchange of products of marine hunting for products of land hunting and reindeer breeding. By the beginning of the XVII century. socially, the peoples of the Far Northeast were at the stage of the primitive communal system. In terms of language, they belonged to the Paleo-Asiatic and Eskimo-Aleut groups. By the end of the XVII century. the population of the Far North-East, according to I. S. Gurvich, B. O. Dolgikh, was 40 thousand people. The economic activity of the peoples of the Far North-East had a complex character. Thus, the sea fur hunting of the Eskimos and Chukchi was combined with hunting, fishing and gathering, and fishing, the leading branch of the economy of the coastal Koryaks, was combined with sea fur hunting. Pastoral reindeer husbandry coexisted with wild deer hunting. Fishing was the main occupation of the Itelmens, and land and sea hunting and gathering were ancillary. The Aleuts were engaged in sea hunting. The taiga-tundra regions of the Okhotsk coast, Northeast Asia and the north of the Amur region were the residence of the Evens (Lamuts, self-name - Even, Oroch), Evenks (old name - Tungus), Yukagirs (self-name - Odul), who were also at the stage of the primitive communal system . The languages spoken by these peoples belong to the Tungus group of languages. The ethnogenesis of the Yukagirs, Evens and Evenks (Tungus) is complex. Many researchers of Siberia consider the Yukagirs as direct descendants of the most ancient aboriginal population of the north of the Far East - continental hunters of reindeer and fishermen. According to I.S. Gurvich, the Yukagir tribes, for all their isolation, were in contact with the northeastern Paleo-Asian, Tungus-speaking peoples and themselves took part in their ethnogenesis. In the middle of the XVII century. Three Yukagir tribes lived in the north of the Far East - Khodyns, Chuvans, Anauls. The autochthonous tribes of Siberia took part in the ethnogenesis of the Tungus (Evens and Evenks). A.P. Okladnikov, G.M. Vasilevich believe that once the distant ancestors of the northern Tungus lived near Lake Baikal. From the south and southeast, Turkic, Mongolian, Manchurian tribes came to the Baikal region, which mixed with the local population and, probably, gave rise to Evens and Evenks. Later, the ancient Tungus began to migrate both to the west and to the east up to the coast of Okhotsk. However, according to researchers, the ethnic features that make it possible to distinguish Evens from Evenks developed after the arrival of Russians in Siberia. By the middle of the XVII century. the number of Evens and Evenks amounted to 8.4 thousand people. All these peoples led a nomadic lifestyle. They were divided according to the type of management into foot and deer. For the former, fishing, gathering and hunting were of paramount importance in the economy. The second were engaged in reindeer herding and hunting for wild deer. They also had a few herds of domestic deer, which were used as transport animals. The third major ethnographic region - Amur-Sakhalin - covers the Amur region, Primorye, Sakhalin. These are the areas of residence of Nanais (self-name - Nani, former - Goldy), Ulchi (self-name - Olchi), Udege (Ude, Udege), Orochs (self-name - Nani), Oroks (old name - Ulta), Negidals (self-name - Elkan, Beyenian ), Nivkhs (the old name is Gilyaks), Ainu. There is no consensus among researchers about the ethnogenesis of the peoples of the Amur region and Sakhalin. Is not it. Schrenk argued that the Nivkhs are the original inhabitants of the Lower Amur and Sakhalin, and their Tungus-speaking neighbors - Ulchi, Oroks, Nanais - are very late newcomers who borrowed from the Nivkhs the basic methods of economic activity and forms of life. In turn, the Tungus-speaking groups, according to L.I. Shrenk, had a great influence on the Nivkhs. L. Ya. Sternberg, having studied the Tungus-speaking peoples, came to the conclusion that the Ulchi, Nanais, Orochi and Oroks are representatives of a single tribe (nationality). Based on the analysis of similarities in some elements of dwellings among the Nivkhs and the peoples of Northeast Asia, it was concluded that the ancestors of the Nivkhs came from more northern regions. A.P. Okladnikov believed that already in the Neolithic on the Amur and Sakhalin, the culture of the ancestors of the modern Nanai, Ulchi and Nivkhs began to take shape. According to A.P. Derevyanko, at the beginning of a new era, the agricultural population of the Mohe had a great influence on the peoples of the lower Amur, and exchange relations developed between them. All these nationalities were at the stage of disintegration of tribal relations. The inhabitants of the south of the Far East in the Neolithic period, judging by the archaeological data, led a settled way of life. Fishing was the basis of their economy. In the period of the early Iron Age, the population of the middle and upper Amur had already switched to agriculture. Agriculture was combined with hunting and, possibly, reindeer herding, which led to the penetration of the Tungus tribes into the Amur valley. Among the Nivkhs, such crafts as blacksmithing, boating, rope weaving, dressing of animal skins and fish skins have reached a fairly high level of development. The Nanais achieved great skill in building boats, in the manufacture of various types of sleds, skis, etc. Nanai products made of birch bark were distinguished by high artistic merit. Metal casting has long been known to the Orochs. The Ainu, in addition to fishing and hunting, were engaged in ocean fishing. Agriculture was mainly developed among the Duchers and Daurs. Agricultural products provided the needs for bread, cereals and flour. Some of them were exchanged. In addition to agriculture, the Daurs were engaged in horse breeding and hunting. Horses were used for riding. Daurs were also known for crafts. They sawed logs and beams, built dwellings and made boats, weaved ropes and ropes from nettles, and knew how to work metal. In essence, the economy of all the peoples of the south of the Far East was complex, semi-natural in nature. The natives of the southern part of the Far East actively developed interethnic contacts. Nivkhs, Ulchis, Nanais were engaged in the exchange of raw materials and local products. In the process of communication, interethnic marriages were concluded. For example, among the Ulchi, clans of Nivkh, Nanai, Negidal origin arose, and among the Nanais - Ulch, Nivkh, etc. Linguistically, most of these peoples belonged to the Tungus-Manchurian language group, the Nivkhs to the Paleo-Asiatic language group. In the documents of the pioneers of the XVII century. Daurs, duchers are mentioned, who were at a higher stage of social development, led a sedentary lifestyle, experienced a strong cultural influence from the Manchus and Chinese. The language of the Duchers was close to the Tungus-Manchu language, and that of the Daurs was close to Mongolian. The centuries-old history of indigenous peoples is complex. Despite all the difficulties of life in the harsh climatic conditions of the Far East, the natives managed to create a rich material culture. The material culture of the natives was maximally adapted to the harsh geographical conditions of the region, the nature of production activities, taking into account those materials, means, products that nature provided them with the required amount: taiga, rivers, ocean. Traditional occupations corresponded to tools and means of transportation. The tools of sea hunting, the means of transportation by sea among the Eskimos and the settled Chukchi had much in common. For hunting cetaceans, walruses, seals, the Eskimos and Chukchi used a rotary harpoon. In addition to this device, the Koryaks used fixed tips made of bone with symmetrically arranged teeth-beards. They were also used for hunting small pinnipeds. The Chukchi and Eskimos used nets made of thin belts to catch seals. Land hunting tools were rather uniform among all the peoples of this region: bows, spears, arrows with stone, iron, bone tips of various shapes and purposes; spears, darts, belt loops. Tools and means of fishing - constipation, snouts, spears, hooks, etc. The main means of transportation by sea for the Eskimos, Chukchi, Aleuts were canoes and kayaks. The petroglyphs of Pegtymel give an idea of the use of canoes for hunting marine mammals, and kayaks for hunting wild deer at river crossings. The Itelmens and Koryaks used baty-boats, hollowed out of a single log, to sail along the rivers and in the bays. The settled population - Koryaks, Chukchis, Eskimos and Itelmens - used deer, dog teams, various types of sleds (for light driving, for transporting goods, children), and walking ski-poles as transport. The Yukagirs hunted the land animal with a bow and arrows. In fishing on rivers, lakes, and bays, a variety of tackle was used: rides with muzzles, hooks, spears, horsehair nets, hooks, etc. The Evens and Evenks used sleds to which the nomads harnessed deer. For the Yukaghirs, rafts, light birch bark shuttles, dugouts served as a means of transportation in summer along the rivers, in winter they used walking kamus skis, similar to those of the Chukchi, and riding sledges, into which dogs were harnessed in a train. The natives of the south of the Far East - Nanai, Ulchi, Nivkh used hooks, traps, nets from wild hemp and nettles in fishing. Large fish and sea animals were caught with harpoons. The Ainu used harpoons with detachable bone or iron tips to catch large fish. Seines - tools for collective fishing - appeared relatively late, when fish began to be caught for sale. Adzes, which performed the functions of an ax, were widespread among the natives. With their help, wood, bone, walrus tusk were processed. The Russian explorer of Kamchatka, S.P. Krasheninnikov, noted that even in the middle of the 17th century. The natives of Kamchatka made their tools - axes, knives, spears, arrows, needles - from deer and whale bones and stone. Boats, bowls, troughs and so on were hollowed out with axes. At the same time, as archaeological excavations in Sarychev Bay have shown, the natives of Northeast Asia were familiar with iron in the 1st millennium AD. e. But the widespread use of iron tools became possible only with the arrival of the Russians. The natural conditions in which the Far Eastern natives lived and their economic activities determined the nature of the settlements, the type of dwelling, the way of life, and clothing. Archaeologists have found that permanent settlements were only among those peoples who led a sedentary lifestyle and were mainly engaged in fishing or sea hunting. At the same time, the settled peoples - the Eskimos, the coastal Koryaks, the Nivkhs, the Ulchi, the Nanais - had both permanent settlements and temporary ones - fishing, seasonal. The nomadic peoples (Chukchi, Koryaks), who were engaged in taiga hunting and reindeer herding, did not have permanent settlements. The main settlements were winter. Some settlements of the Eskimos and settled Chukchi have been in one place for tens or even hundreds of years. The Itelmens lived in summer in temporary villages, where they were engaged in fishing, and in winter they moved to settlements consisting of dugouts. For the majority of the settled population of the Amur, the main life was concentrated in winter villages, where there were barns, as well as summer dwellings. The types of dwellings were varied. In Kamchatka and Chukotka, semi-dugouts with an entrance through a smoke hole in the roof were widespread. Such dwellings in the XVIII century. were preserved among the Itelmens and Koryaks, several related families lived in them. Reindeer Chukchi and Koryaks had a portable yaranga (yurt) in which they lived all year round. It was a multifaceted frame with wooden supports and a roof. Sometimes a vestibule made of poles covered with deer skins was attached to the winter Koryak dwelling. The Itelmens moved in the summer to a booth - these are round or quadrangular double buildings, based on nine or twelve pillars. The Aleuts lived in dugouts, and in the summer they settled in land dwellings. The Yukaghirs lived in large settlements - prisons in dugouts, in the summer they moved to logged rectangular buildings. The winter dwelling of the Even nomads was a portable conical tent. For settled groups, a log house or semi-dugout with a hearth made of poles coated with clay served as a winter dwelling. The settled Nanai, Ulchi, Oroch, "grassroots" Negidals and Nivkhs had permanent dwellings in the 17th-18th centuries. was a building in the form of an ordinary house with pole frames, a roof, an earthen floor, with pit heating. The summer dwelling of each nation differed in form and design. For example, the Daurs lived in settlements (of 60–70 frame-type houses). The buildings resembled the ground dwellings of the peoples of the Amur region and Manchuria. Settlements (fortress-towns) were surrounded by earthen ramparts and walls. Around them were fields, places of grazing. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. the peoples of the Far East gradually mastered the technique of Russian log house construction. Russian stoves appeared, and bunks or beds were installed in place of the cans. Russian izba at the beginning of the 20th century. became the main type of housing. The clothes of the peoples of the Far East developed in ancient times and changed over the centuries. The nature and type of clothing of the natives was influenced by climatic conditions, fishing activities of peoples. The peoples of Northeast Asia used deaf clothes of the northeast type. Winter clothing for men was a short double kukhlyanka. Koryaks and Itelmens wore kukhlyankas with a hood and a small bib sewn to the front of the collar. Among the Aleuts, winter clothing made from bird skins (parkas) was common. In summer, they wore worn out winter clothes, and also sewed special summer clothes from thick smoke, rovduga (suede), guts of marine animals, and bird skins. The clothes of the Evens, Evenks, Yukaghirs were of a swing type and cut and had two variants of the cut of the caftan: it was sewn from skins, less often from rovduga; he also served as summer clothing. The Yukagirs sewed clothes from dressed deer skins; had armor, kuyaks and helmets made of bone plates. Nanais, Ulchis, Nivkhs, Oroks, Udyges wore overcoat type clothes with a doubled left floor. They sewed clothes from cloth, suede, fish skin. Ainu winter clothes are dressing gowns made of cloth, animal skins or elk skin. In summer, the Ainu wore headbands, and in winter, fur hats. Festive clothes did not differ in cut from everyday clothes, but they were richly decorated with embroideries, appliqués, fur mosaics, and beads. The Koryaks sewed fringe and tassels of thin white mandarka sewn with colored beads on festive clothes, appliqués in the form of stripes cut from mandarka with denticles. The Itelmens sewed festive parkas from sable, deer or dog fur, decorated the fur with decorative stripes. During the celebrations, the Aleuts put on a new parka, richly decorated with fur straps. The food of the Far Eastern peoples was also varied. The main food of polar hunters - Eskimos, coastal Chukchi and Koryaks - is walrus, seal and whale meat in various forms (ice cream, boiled, dried). Whale skin was eaten raw; venison was highly valued. Vegetable food, seaweed, shellfish served as seasoning. The Itelmens' main food was fish - "Kamchatka bread". They used dried fish (yukola), smoked and pickled fish. Russian traveler V. M. Golovnin noted that “Kamchadals very rarely salt fish. A small part is smoked, the rest is dried in the air or fermented; that is, they put fresh fish in a hole and bury it in earth, where it spoils and rots. Such an abomination is called sour fish here, but Kamchadals are extremely fond of sour fish. The Evens and Evenkis ate mainly the meat of deer and elk, which was prepared by drying in the sun in finely chopped form. Soup with the addition of blood was cooked on meat broth. From the intestines they made sausage, from dried fish - yukon, and from dried fish - flour. In the summer they consumed large quantities of reindeer milk, berries, wild garlic, and onions. The main drink is tea with reindeer milk and salt. The food of the population of the southern part of the Far East was mainly fish. They used fish in different forms: boiled, raw, canned. Soups from fresh or dried fish, as well as from meat, were prepared with many seasonings - wild herbs and roots. A lot of fish oil was added to a dish of purchased products (cereals, pasta, noodles). It was also eaten with berries, which were used in large quantities in salads, mainly from fish and various roots. Tea was brewed from chaga, lingonberry leaves, mint, wild rosemary shoots, etc. The centuries-old experience of the life of the indigenous peoples of the Far East is reflected in the spiritual culture. Being the creators of a unique spiritual culture and original applied art, they made an invaluable contribution to the treasury of world culture. Folklore occupied a significant place in the spiritual life: myths, fairy tales, legends. All the peoples of the Far North had a myth about a cultural hero - the Crow-Creator. In Chukchi folklore, Raven's main feat is getting light. Raven stole the Sun from evil spirits, created mountains, rivers, people and animals, using seal bones, wood chips, grass and flint as material. In Eskimo myths, there are stories about the creation of the Raven land. In the Koryak-Itelmen myths, much attention is paid to Raven's family life: his wife, brother, sister, as well as children and grandchildren usually appear. Heroic tales among the peoples of the Far North-East arose in the era of the decomposition of the tribal system and the beginning of the stratification of primitive society. The main protagonist of the heroic tales is a human wolf-hunter, distinguished by physical strength and ingenuity. The basis of many heroic tales were genuine historical events: major clashes, internecine feuds between individual communities and families. So, in the Chukchi tales, the Koryaks act as opponents, in the Koryak tales - the Chukchi. In Itelmen folklore there is a single cycle of legends about the hero Tylval. Among the peoples of the south of the Far East there are cosmogonic, totemic and other myths. Cosmogonic myths tell about the origin of the universe. For example, the myths of the peoples of the Amur region tell about the participation in the creation of the world of the Swan and the Eagle. Totemic myths tell about the relationship of a person with an animal, which then becomes the patron of the family. So, the Orochi and Nanais considered the tiger as their ancestor, the Nivkh - the bear. They all believed that animals, if they wanted to, could always take off their skin and become human. Folk decorative art occupied an important place in the life and way of life of the natives. It reflected not only the original aesthetic worldview of peoples, but also social life, the level of economic development and interethnic, intertribal ties. The traditional decorative art of the peoples has deep roots in the land of their ancestors. A vivid evidence of this is the monument of ancient culture - petroglyphs (drawings-scribbles) on the rocks of Sikachi-Alyan. The art of the Tungus-Manchus and Nivkhs reflected the environment, aspirations, creative imagination of hunters, fishermen, gatherers of herbs and roots. The original art of the peoples of the Amur and Sakhalin has always delighted those who came into contact with it for the first time. The Russian scientist L. I. Shrenk was very struck by the ability of the Nivkhs (Gilyaks) to make crafts from various metals, decorate their weapons with figures made of red copper, brass, and silver. A great place in the art of the Tungus-Manchus and Nivkhs was occupied by cult sculpture, the material for which was wood, iron, silver, grass, straw, combined with beads, beads, ribbons, and fur. Researchers note that only the peoples of the Amur and Sakhalin were able to make amazingly beautiful applications on fish skin, paint birch bark, and wood. The art of the Chukchi, Eskimos, Koryaks, Itelmens, and Aleuts reflected the life of a hunter, a sea St. John's wort, and a tundra reindeer breeder. For many centuries they have achieved perfection in walrus bone carving, carving on bone plates depicting dwellings, boats, animals, scenes of hunting for a sea animal. The famous Russian explorer of Kamchatka, academician S.P. Krasheninnikov, admiring the skill of the ancient peoples, wrote: “Of all the work of these other peoples, which they do very cleanly with stone knives and axes, nothing was more surprising to me than a walrus bone chain ... She consisted of rings, similar to chiseled smoothness, and was made from one tooth; her upper rings were larger, the lower ones smaller, and her length was a little less than half a yard. I can safely say that, in terms of the purity of work and art, no one would consider another for the labors of a wild Chukchi and made with a stone tool. Throughout the historical development of the peoples of the Far East, their songs were formed. The most ancient layers of musical culture are manifested in the "bear holiday" of the peoples of the south of the Far East. The main hero of the songs and tales of the Yukagirs was a smart and brave hare. Folklore - legends, myths, legends - kept the norms of law, ethics and morality. Traditions of musical art were passed down from generation to generation. The most widespread was a circular dance, round dance. The performance of songs and dances was accompanied by worgan music. The holidays ended with mass games, during which they competed in wrestling, running, archery. A very important place in the culture of the aborigines belonged to the art of dancing. Among the Eskimos, Chukchis, Koryaks, Itelmens, game dances were widely practiced. Ritual dances were of a magical nature, dedicated to the end of the hunt or the seeing off of the souls of the killed sea animals in the sea, or the solemn meeting of the hunted sea animals. They were performed by older women to the accompaniment of a tambourine or singing. The performers, dancing, imitated the habits of animals, tried to "appease", cheer him up. Special dances are inherent in Evenks and Evens. Round dances were common among them, which moved in a vicious circle, along the course of the Sun, to the tune of the performers themselves. Consequences of Russian colonization The inclusion of indigenous peoples in the Russian state was of particular importance for the historical development of the indigenous population. Constant contacts with the Russian people led to various changes in the life of the indigenous population. This process was progressive, but difficult. Gradually, the involvement of the semi-subsistence economy of the aborigines in the all-Russian economy brought the Far Eastern peoples out of their primitive isolation and isolation. Under the influence of the Russian population, some of the aboriginal groups began to engage in horticulture and livestock, which were mostly subsistence. Many groups of the indigenous population gradually moved from reindeer herding, hunting and fishing to hunting for fur-bearing animals and trading in furs in exchange for industrial goods and European products, others, changing the nature of reindeer herding, moved from small herds to large herds. In the XIX - early XX centuries. the farms of the indigenous population were drawn into the sphere of capitalist production. Furs are gaining commercial importance, products of reindeer breeding, fishing, and sea fur hunting have partially entered the market. The emergence of commodity-money relations contributed to the decomposition of the patriarchal-tribal system among the indigenous peoples. Gradually, the custom of dividing large meat prey, the most valuable hunting products (for example, antlers), disappeared. Private ownership of fishery products was extended; personal property appeared even among members of the same family: husband, wife, children. By the beginning of the XX century. national communities were divided into rich and poor. Separate representatives of the wealthy elite moved to the cities, breaking with their national environment. Ancient customs, norms of customary law, traditions were forced out of the indigenous population by private property interests. However, this process in different peoples had its own characteristics. Among the Nanai and Ulchi, the tribal organization disintegrated by the middle of the 19th century. For the Nivkhs, this process was slower. To the least extent, the changes affected the natives of the northern territories - the Koryaks, Chukchi, Evens and others. Social transformations in their midst were held back by continued isolation from the rest of the world, intermittent contacts with Russian, Japanese and American merchants and industrialists. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. migration and mixing of the population both within one group and between different ethnic groups intensified. In general, from the XVII to the beginning of the XX century. The ethnographic map of the region has changed significantly and become more complex: the territories of groups engaged mainly in appropriating industries (Koryaks, Eskimos, Itelmens) have decreased, and, on the contrary, reindeer herders (Evens, Evenks) have significantly expanded their territories. The accession of the Far Eastern lands to Russia also had negative sides. The fiscal policy of tsarism, to a certain extent, contributed to the conservation of archaic social relations, doomed the natives to harsh exploitation and material stagnation. Unbearable yasak, lack of medical care, unsanitary living conditions, abuses by the administration, harassment by merchants and Cossacks gave rise to the aborigines' desire to free themselves from the oppression of the newcomer Russian population. In the XVIII - early XX century. there were several major clashes between indigenous peoples and Russian explorers. The most serious skirmishes took place on the coast of Okhotsk, Kamchatka, Chukotka. The Chukchi were the most stubborn in their struggle. The rampant robbery of Russian and foreign entrepreneurs affected the state of the economy of the indigenous peoples of the Far East. The number of sea game animals, valuable fur-bearing animals, and valuable species of fish has sharply decreased. The indigenous population was shamelessly exploited by both Russian merchants and industrialists, and their own. For furs and fish they paid with goods of the lowest quality; trading operations were often accompanied by the drinking of natives with vodka. As a result of the decline of the traditional economy, there was a shortage of food, and the death rate of the indigenous population from starvation, epidemics of measles and smallpox increased sharply. So, according to Academician L.I. Shrenk, in the 1850s. 5216 Gilyaks (Nivkhs) lived in the Amur region, and the 1897 census registered only 4642 people. Such a difficult situation of the natives persisted at the beginning of the 20th century. The wide spread of previously unknown diseases, mass alcoholism led to high mortality, mental and physical degeneration. The aborigines' opportunities for farming were further reduced due to the withdrawal and redistribution of land in favor of Russian and foreign entrepreneurs, and the commercial exploitation of the indigenous population. The indigenous population, not being able to live off their traditional crafts, was forced to learn new occupations: to work for hire in the extraction and salting of fish, hay and firewood, and construction. In the mines and mines of the Amur region, Sakhalin, workers from among the indigenous people appeared. State policy towards indigenous peoplesFar East The Far East attracted the tsarist government of Russia as a territory for the implementation of the resettlement policy, while it tried to prevent the negative impact of the Russians on the indigenous peoples of Siberia and the Far East. In 1822, the Charter on the management of foreigners was adopted. It attempted to legally define the position of the indigenous population. The charter was imbued with the desire to preserve not only economic well-being, but also the original way of life. The government, despite all the measures, failed to legalize the flow of Russian colonization of the North, the Far East, which invaded deep into the lands, constantly violating the rights of foreigners. In 1892, a new regulation on foreigners was adopted, which was in effect until 1917. According to this law, a department of elders was established in the Amur region, subordinate to police or volost departments. By 1916, a special “Regulation on the management of foreigners in the Amur Territory” was adopted and began to operate, developed with the direct participation of the Amur Governor-General N. L. Gondatti. According to this "Regulation" most of the peoples of the south of the Far East were equated with the peasant class. However, the measures taken by the tsarist government did not have the desired result due to their unsystematic, episodic nature, and also due to the fault of the local authorities, who bypassed all decisions. At the same time, the indigenous peoples, as subjects of the empire, were exposed to the destructive manifestations of the policy of the indifferent, passive attitude of the authorities in relation to raising their living standards, their health, literacy, and maintaining national culture. The situation that developed in the country during the First World War, the revolution and the subsequent civil war and foreign intervention aggravated the position of the indigenous peoples. The threat of the collapse of the country due to the claims of the interventionists and the fierce struggle of internal socio-political forces hit the economy of the areas inhabited by aborigines painfully. The fishing economy was in crisis, there were no connections with the southern regions, the trade in furs and timber fell and, as a result, the population decreased. It was possible to stop the process of extinction of indigenous peoples only in the 1920s. under Soviet rule. The most important feature of the state policy of the Soviet government in relation to the indigenous peoples was that, unlike the policy of the tsarist government, it was carried out not only with the aim of preserving these peoples from extinction, but, mainly, a qualitative change in their culture, way of life, way of life. In a short time they were to become full-fledged and full-fledged citizens of the country. The country needed huge natural resources for restoration and construction. The attention of the state was riveted to the eastern regions. Minerals, timber, furs, fish, water resources - all these riches were hidden in the Far Eastern land. Back in the years of the Civil War, the Committee for the Study of Natural Resources was created in Moscow, which in the 1920s. launched a broad activity in Siberia and the Far East. In his work, he faced the problem of the state of the aboriginal population. Numerous expeditions to the places of residence of the northern peoples in the early 1920s. revealed a horrific picture. Due to the military-political events of 1917-1922. these peoples were on the verge of extinction, so the Committee for the Study of Natural Resources in the 1920s. took a number of measures aimed at maintaining the life of the northerners. Often this was expressed in the gratuitous supply of food, weapons, ammunition, and the provision of reindeer for use. Many areas of fishing and hunting grounds were returned to the peoples. They were exempt from state and local taxes. In 1924, under the Presidium of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, the Committee for Assistance to the Peoples of the Northern Outskirts was created, which began to deal with the problems of the indigenous peoples of the USSR. Local committees were soon formed. In 1926, the Far Eastern Committee of the North was established under the Far Eastern Executive Committee under the leadership of the outstanding organizer and scientist K. Ya. Luks. The inhabitants of the Amur region, Chukotka and Kamchatka called him the head of the "Big Committee". The main task of the activities of the central and local committees was to study the life of indigenous peoples and to provide them with assistance in the conditions of new social relations. These institutions organically fit into the created management system. In the second half of the 1920s. the policy of lending and pricing in relation to indigenous people has changed. Local products of crafts found a market, the purchasing power of the local population grew. Cooperative forms of management were born. In 1927, about 70 seasonal fishing artels were registered in the lower reaches of the Amur. These were the simplest partnerships based on collective labor, associated with state and cooperative organizations in supply and marketing relations. There were no hard limits on the production of fish for own consumption. At that time, marine hunting was of great importance. In 1927, 800 bearded seals, 2205 seals, 927 belugas were caught in the Amur Estuary. At the same time, local residents handed over 1/5 of the products to the state and cooperative enterprises, and used the rest in their farms. Thus, by the end of the 1920s. the economic situation of the Nivkhs has improved significantly due to the expansion of the ability to use natural resources for traditional use. During this period, many Nivkh families got acquainted with animal husbandry, the sale of livestock for them was carried out on preferential terms. In 1927–1928 40% of Nivkh farms had horses, 16.7% - cattle, 20% - poultry, 82.7% - dogs. Horticulture also developed. In 1924, 30% of households had vegetable gardens. However, a number of factors hindered the modernization of farms. These include tribal relations, lack of a common culture, remoteness of places of residence. To overcome them, the Committee of the North undertook organizational, political and administrative measures. During 1927–1936 according to his decision, 18 northern cultural bases were built, including 4 in the Far East. They were intended to solve pressing life problems and serve the needs of the population. The cultural base included a complex of social, economic and cultural institutions: a shop, a school, a hospital, a bathhouse, a native's house (something between a club and a hotel). Features of the socio-economic development of the peoples of the Far East, their living conditions (scale of the territory, small population, remoteness from the centers of the country), the nature of their crafts gave rise to traditions of free use of fishing grounds. Interethnic ties were also facilitated by the exchange of locally produced products. However, the peculiarities of the way of life and culture of the indigenous peoples contradicted the policy of accelerated construction of socialism, which had been carried out in the country since the late 1920s. – early 1930s As a result, the indigenous peoples experienced the negative consequences of industrialization and collectivization, which were exacerbated by the ill-conceived national policy of the state. There is an opinion that in the conditions of the industrial development of the Far East, the national traditions, way of life, customs, economy of small peoples, in principle, could not be preserved. The first blow to the fragile ethno-social environment of the peoples of the Far East was inflicted in the 1930s and 1950s. XX century, when collectivization began among them. The creation of collective farms and state farms was provided with financial support from the state. The first agricultural artels appeared in 1928. By 1930, there were already several dozen fishing and hunting collective farms among the indigenous population of the Far East. The decisions of the party and state bodies became the basis for collectivization. In many ways, they did not take into account the peculiarities of the situation of the indigenous peoples of the North, they were distinguished by formalism and ill-conceivedness. The Far Eastern Executive Committee decided to carry out collectivization among the ethnic groups of the North as part of a tough political course in 1931. Although the pace of collectivization was different for the territories, the indigenous inhabitants of the Amur region were 95% collectivized already in 1934. This indicator testified to the mass coercion of residents to enroll in collective farms . Historians are aware of documents that testify to the weak attempt of the ruling elite to justify the excesses in the dispossession policy, to find the true culprits of violence against the people. Also since the late 1980s. materials about illegal repressions of citizens became public. "Enemies of the people" were also found among the Far Eastern peoples, hundreds of people were thrown into the camps of the NKVD. But nothing could justify the threat of starvation. The country was hard going through the consequences of collectivization. There was a gradual displacement of the indigenous peoples from the traditional forms of management: hunting, fishing, sea fur hunting. A special role in the economic transformations in the Far East (?) was assigned to the Integral Cooperation (Integral Union), established in 1926 to supply and market products, promote fishing, and lend to the aboriginal population. An analysis of its activities showed that excessive attention to the national fishing areas for the harvesting of furs and valuable fish species, low purchase prices forced hunters to rapaciously destroy fur-bearing animals in order to ensure their existence. Social competition, overfulfillment of plans led to the undermining of biological resources, did not ensure the reproduction of fish stocks, fur and sea animals. This was especially characteristic of the fishermen of the Khabarovsk and Nizhne-Amur regions. In this regard, the activities of the Integral Cooperation in 1938 were terminated. Only from the second half of the 1930s. positive changes began to emerge. Along with traditional crafts (hunting, fishing, reindeer breeding), collective farms began to engage in vegetable farming, cage fur farming, and beekeeping. In order to mechanize traditional trades, motor-fishing stations, marine fur-slaughtering stations, sea-animal plants were opened, which served as MTS in agricultural collective farms. But it was not possible to overcome the deep consequences of continuous collectivization to the end. In 1935 An independent economic unit was created - the Middle Amur Rybaksoyuz. It united 48 fishing collective farms, territorially located in two districts (Komsomolsky and Nanaisky) with a total length of 500 km along the banks of the river. Amur. Collective farms were created on the ground, that is, in the camps of the traditional use of natural resources by the indigenous population. Moreover, the number of collective farmers was constantly increasing, and the planned targets for catching fish grew significantly from year to year, despite the fact that during its entire existence the Rybaksoyuz has never coped with the task assigned to it. Simultaneously with collectivization, a number of settlements were liquidated, sometimes forcibly resettled in unsuccessfully located villages. A unified approach began to be implemented in life, the peculiarities of cultures, customs, and lifestyles of indigenous peoples were not taken into account at all. This policy led to the destruction of people's connection with the traditional economic system, to the loss of the national and cultural identity of peoples, to their forced inclusion in another way of life alien to them. After the Great Patriotic War, the remaining population was settled in enlarged collective farms; in some localities, national and Russian collective farms were merged. In the 1950s–1960s The life of the indigenous people began to improve due to changes in the material and technical support of collective farms, but the process of resettlement from traditional villages to enlarged settlements continued until the end of the 1970s. Separation from the native soil (native village) of many families, their resettlement to new places led to the rapid destruction of the national culture. In the 1960s with the organization of industrial farms, the alienation of the natives from the hunting economy began. This process had a particularly strong impact on the life of the Negidals, for whom hunting has always played an important role. They were gradually forced out by alien hunters from the lands. At the same time, some conclusions of scientists regarding the negative consequences of resettlement and the ability of the hunting resource base to ensure the sustainable development of the fishery without the threat of extinction from starvation continue to be controversial. Habitat of the Indigenous Minorities by 1950–1970 has been significantly transformed; the population could no longer live on the existing resource base. At the same time, there was no necessary critical mass of the population among the natives, which could live according to the laws of their fathers and grandfathers. The artificial concentration of the population, the "internalization" of children, the loss of communication between generations, all this led to alienation from the past traditional way of life. The activities of local Soviet authorities were accompanied, on the one hand, by a total impact on the traditional ethnic cultures of the peoples of the North in order to increase their modernized potential, and on the other hand, by the deployment of large-scale social programs designed to minimize the possible negative consequences of such modernization. The real changes that took place in the life of peoples in the 1930s–1960s, interpreted by official propaganda and substantiated by Soviet science as unambiguously positive, for a long time did not make it possible to notice, much less make public, the negative consequences of such a policy. At the same time, one cannot fail to note the positive shifts in the position of indigenous peoples that have occurred as a result of policies aimed at maintaining health, developing education, and changing their lifestyle. In the 1920s Traveling medical teams became the main form of medical care for the indigenous population. In the Far East, such detachments first appeared in 1924. At first there were 2 of them, later there were 23. Since 1932, they began to create a permanent network of paramedical and medical stations in crowded places. Many diseases were cured, and people believed in the effectiveness of medicine. Within ten years of the 1926–1928 Aboriginal Census. in the districts and districts of the Far East, the number of indigenous peoples by 1937 increased from 49,902 to 62,761 people, which accounted for 123% of the increase. The situation was also bad with the literacy rate of the natives, which was 3%. After the establishment of Soviet power, the eradication of illiteracy began. Schools and mobile learning centers were opened. When organizing studies, the peculiarities of the life of the population were taken into account. In the adopted resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of July 25, 1935 “On universal compulsory primary education”, it was prescribed to conduct universal education in the Far North no later than 1934, and for areas with a nomadic population by 1935. In 1934, the general literacy of the indigenous of the population was 25%, and the Nanai - 50%. However, despite the measures taken, including the introduction of universal primary education in the country, it was not possible to enroll all children in school education even by 1940. The creation of national scripts took place in 1931–1936. Nanais, Nivkhs, Ulchis, Evenks, Chukchis began to use Russian letters. This contributed to the inclusion of the peoples of the Far East in the world cultural process. The publication of magazines, newspapers, books in national languages testified to certain successes in cultural policy. However, even here there were some kinks. The unification of the educational process had a particularly painful effect on the schooling of children. Since 1963, in all schools located in areas densely populated by indigenous peoples, the process of teaching in native languages has ceased. The Russian language supplanted national languages, printed publications began to decline. The ousting of national "survivals" was considered an indispensable condition for the formation of a person with a socialist worldview. Many traditions, rituals, beliefs were condemned, many positive and invaluable customs of antiquity were subjected to ideological pressure. The way of life among the peoples has changed radically and has become little different from the way of life of the Russian people. The color and attractiveness of national villages, household utensils, clothing, games and entertainment are a thing of the past. All this together caused great damage to the upbringing of the younger generation of indigenous people. The dual result of Russification is recognized by scientists in relation to all the small peoples of the country, including the peoples of the Far East. Along with the negative manifestations of the policy of planting Russian culture, national cultures have reached significant heights, which is confirmed by the formation of scientific, creative intelligentsia from among the small peoples. A major role in this was played by higher educational institutions created to train national personnel - the Institute of the Peoples of the North, opened in 1926 in Leningrad, the branch of the peoples of the North at the Khabarovsk Pedagogical Institute, opened in 1934. Dozens of people gained worldwide fame, among them such writers , as Nanaian G. Hodzher, Udege D. Kimonko, Ulch A. Valdyu, Chukchi Y. Rytkheu, Nivkh V. Sanga, singer and collector of folklore of the peoples of the North K. Beldy, Doctor of Philology S. Onenko, Doctor of Historical Sciences Ch. Taksami and etc. In the 1960s–1980s various and in many respects contradictory trends in the social development of the indigenous peoples of the North were identified and consistently strengthened. An increase in the standard of living of the population, the stability of socio-economic development contributed to an increase in their number. Dynamics of the number of indigenous peoples of the Amur region Nationalities 1989 to 1959 (%) Udege Negidals Small peoples were finally involved in the economic turnover. In the country, employment in social production in 1970 was 88.3%, in the region - 89%. The proportion of the population employed in social production (out of the entire able-bodied population) among the indigenous peoples of the Lower Amur in 1970 was: among the Nanais - 80.9%, Ulchi - 76.2%, Nivkhs - 73.9%, Udeges - 77.1 %., including the male population, respectively - 89.5%, 82.6%, 84.2%, 88.6%. In the first case, the decrease in indicators gave lower, in comparison with men's, women's employment. This was due to the persistence of national traditions, a temporary reduction in the demand for labor in connection with the reorientation of the national fishing collective farms to new industries. The socio-professional differentiation of the rural population of the peoples of the Lower Amur was growing. By the end of the 1970s. the share of those employed in collective farm production among the Nanais - rural residents was 59.7%, the Ulchi - 40.4%, and the rural population was quite widely employed in the state sphere of the national economy. In industry and public education, it ranged from 8.2% to 20.8%. The Nanai and Ulchi mostly lived on collective farms that specialized in fishing. In the 1960s–1970s there was a change in the sectoral structure of fishing collective farms - the share of fish production was reduced in favor of other industries. This led to a redistribution of labor within the collective farms, between collective farm and state production in the countryside, and also between town and country. More than 40% of the Nanai and about 60% of the Ulchi in the 1970s. were employed in state production, which could not but affect the preservation of national crafts and habitats. Negative phenomena generated by ill-conceived and hasty modernization began to grow. The Decree of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR of February 7, 1980 "On measures for the further economic and social development of the regions inhabited by the peoples of the North" was a belated step and could not fundamentally change the unfavorable situation. The significant loss of the national cultures of the indigenous peoples of the North, the ongoing and intensifying attack on their habitat from year to year - these are the results of such a policy. In the region, the consolidation of settlements continued during these years. In the Khabarovsk Territory, 50 small villages, which were predominantly inhabited by ethnic minorities, ceased to exist. During the years of perestroika, scientists were involved in the development of state policy in relation to indigenous peoples who develop the state concept for the development of the indigenous peoples, taking into account both positive and negative experience in solving the most complex interethnic problems in the country and abroad. In 1989, a large team of scientists led by the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences proposed a concept for the social and economic development of the peoples of the North for the period up to 2010. Within the framework of this concept, the key problems of supporting and developing the country's indigenous peoples were identified. These include issues of socio-economic, socio-cultural, medical and social development, the problems of resettlement, the architectural environment of life, the system of self-government of indigenous peoples However, the hasty and ill-conceived policy of restructuring the entire economic mechanism in the second half of the 1980s. ultimately led to the collapse of the economy and the deterioration of the situation of the entire population of the country, including the indigenous peoples. The employment of the aboriginal population in social production was less than 50% of its population. This major problem arose after the cessation of state support that existed during the years of Soviet power, the collapse of consumer cooperatives that accepted wild plants from indigenous peoples, a significant reduction in the number of deer, and the collapse of fishing collective farms. According to the opinion of the Governor of the Khabarovsk Territory, V.I. Society's understanding of the importance of the problems that arose radically influenced the awakening of national self-consciousness. The development of national movements was especially active in the late 1980s. of the last century, when people's fronts, movements, political parties begin to be created. The indigenous peoples of the North did not bypass this process either. In 1990, on March 30, in Moscow, at the first Congress of the Indigenous Peoples of the North, the Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East was created. It included 30 regional ethnic associations created on the basis of the territorial and territorial-ethnic principle, some of them were created at the time of the congress: in the Koryak Autonomous Okrug, in the Kamchatka, Magadan, Sakhalin, Amur regions, Khabarovsk Territory. After the congress, associations of indigenous peoples are being actively created in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, and Primorsky Krai. Associations are being formed: a branch of the Inuit circumpolar conference of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, an association of the Aleut people "Ansarko" of the Kamchatka region. In 1997, the Far Eastern Union of the Indigenous Minorities of the Russian Federation was formed as a representative of the regional and ethnic Associations of the Indigenous Minorities of the Far East. The supreme body of the Association of Indigenous Minorities of the North, Siberia and the Far East is the congress, convened once every 4 years. Between congresses the Coordinating Council headed by the President works. SN Kharyuchi was elected the first President. P. V. Sulyandziga became the President of the Association of Indigenous Minorities of the North of the Far East. The Association held 3 congresses of indigenous peoples. By 2000, 3 large-scale projects have been implemented. The first project is aimed at developing the institutions of the indigenous peoples of the North and includes three parts. The first is “indigenous peoples to indigenous peoples”. In February 1998, representatives of regional associations established close contacts with the Inuit community in Canada and studied their experience. The second part is “government to government”. The State Committee for the Development of the North of the Russian Federation and the Ministry of Indian Affairs and the Development of the North of Canada discussed aspects of the development of the policy of the two countries in relation to the Arctic. One of the successful results was the provision of humanitarian aid in Chukotka in January 1998. The third part of the program is the provision of modern technological equipment to the indigenous associations. The second project “Development of circumpolar cooperation of indigenous peoples in the protection of rights and habitats” at the theoretical and methodological level was implemented by 2000. Seminars and conferences on the problems of indigenous peoples have been held, a data bank has been created on project proposals from the regions, data is being collected on environmental problems. The association strengthens its influence on monitoring the processes of development and rehabilitation of the environment. At the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. Indigenous peoples of the Far East are faced with numerous problems that are of vital (vital) importance to them. The situation in some cases worsened for them by the beginning of the 21st century. But it is impossible to consider the situation as catastrophic. Statements about the disappearance of small peoples from the ethnic map of the region are, to say the least, erroneous. The ethno-social problems of small peoples are not something unique and exclusive in the world. In countries where indigenous peoples live, similar tasks of helping them are solved. In the life of the peoples of the Far East, there are also processes of slow development towards a market economy. The authorities are faced with the task of creating conditions for effective "adaptation" to the new socio-economic and political conditions, developing protective mechanisms against the negative impacts of ill-conceived reforms and restructuring. For several years, the perseverance of regional authorities, the public, scientists, specialists from various sectors of the economy managed to “turn the tide” towards the revival of the economy and culture of the Far East. This, in turn, provides a broad opportunity to address the pressing issues of life and further progress of indigenous peoples. In 2004, the 10th anniversary of the world's indigenous peoples, declared by the UN, ended. The main guidelines for development have been determined. In the Far Eastern regions of the Russian Federation, measures have been outlined and are being implemented to overcome the negative consequences of state policy in the socio-economic sphere. The reduction in the number of individual indigenous peoples takes place in modern conditions, but it cannot be called catastrophic. Indigenous Minorities of the Khabarovsk Territory (according to census data) All population Peoples of the North Including: Udege Negidals In the Khabarovsk Territory, the "Basic Directions for the Development of Indigenous Minorities for 2002-2005" have been approved. For three years, 4 regional laws, more than 20 resolutions of the governor and the regional government on the development of small peoples have been adopted. The development of the Program for the Development of Indigenous Minorities for 2006-2008 is nearing completion. The issue of representation of indigenous peoples in the legislative duma of the region is being worked out. Since 2001, there has been a protected item in the regional budget that provides for the allocation of funds for the socio-economic development of the indigenous peoples of the North. More than 10 million rubles are planned to be allocated in 2005, 7.5 million of which are included in the federal budget. Work is being carried out in two main directions: to create normal living conditions and to boost the economy of national villages. There are such programs as "Fresh Bread" - installation of bakeries, "Clean Water" - construction and repair of water supply sources, training and advanced training of personnel for national enterprises. For the economic potential, the idea of creating basic enterprises in national villages is being implemented. About 19 million hectares of hunting grounds, more than 100 fishing grounds have been allocated to national farms, the volumes of wood harvested by them reach 100,000 cubic meters per year, and the catch of slaves of various species in 2004 reached 2,700 tons. The problems of preserving the catch of fish persist, it is often sold for a pittance at the place of catch, which causes damage to the state, nature and the population itself, which does not receive decent pay for their work. There is also no system for processing and selling wild plants. At the stage of organization is the regional center "Priamure", intended for these purposes. Processing of various taiga fees will be carried out on the basis of Forest Products LLC. Over the past 3 years, 10 sawmills have been transferred to national farms. The national community "Amur" from the village of Sinda in the Nanai region launched a wide range of work. She managed to develop logging and lumber production, in 2004 a brick factory was opened in the village. Gradually, the issue of training specialists from among the indigenous peoples of the North and replenishing the labor resources of the Far East is being resolved. There are schools that have the status of schools of the indigenous peoples of the North, for example, in Nikolaevsk-on-Amur there are two of them: medical and pedagogical. Students receive free education, being fully supported at the expense of funds from the regional budget. A branch of a technological college was opened in the Bulava village of the Ulchi district; in 2004, the first graduation of 14 young specialists took place. At the same time, the problem of employment persists, of which only half got a job. Purposeful work with indigenous peoples is carried out at the Far Eastern Medical University, the preparatory department of which is financed from the regional budget. Khabarovsk State Pedagogical University has been training specialists at the Faculty of Indigenous Peoples since 2003. The regional government is developing programs in various areas: publishing books in national languages, preserving cultural values, supporting healthcare and education. According to experts, speaking about the protection of the rights and interests of indigenous peoples, solving their problems, it should be recognized that this requires the development and implementation of the principles of a new policy of the Russian state on the basis of cooperation and partnership of all sectors of human and civil society, taking into account international experience and a frank and objective recognition of the whole complex of difficulties that have arisen in the preservation of the unique culture of the indigenous peoples of the North. Civilizational changes in the modern world could not but affect the process of economic and socio-cultural development of small peoples living in different countries. Russia in the 20th century, which entered the period of global changes associated with revolutions, world wars and attempts to create a democratic state, invariably faces the most important problem of creating or maintaining conditions for the original development of indigenous peoples. Of the 45 Indigenous Peoples (Indigenous Minorities) of Russia, a significant part of them live in the Far East. On the territory of the Khabarovsk Territory there are Nanais (Golds), Ulchis, Negidals, Nivkhs (Gilyaks), Evens (Tungus - Lamuts), Evenki (Tungus), Udege (Ude), Orochi. In Primorsky Krai - Evenks (Tungus), Nanais (Golds), Orochs, Udeges, Tazy; Sakhalin region - Evenks (Tungus), Oroks, Nivkhs; Magadan region - Evens (Tungus - Lamuts), Chukchi, Yukagirs (oduls), Chuvans; Kamchatka region - Evens (Tungus - Lamuts), Aleuts, Koryaks, Itelmens (Kamchadals); Amur region - Evenki (Tungus); in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug - Evens (Tungus - Lamuts), Eskimos (Inuit), Koryaks, Kereks, Chuvans (etels); in the Koryak Autonomous Okrug - Evens (Tungus - Lamuts), Aleuts (Ungans), Chukchi, Koryaks, Itelmens (Kamchadals), in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) - Evenks (Tungus), Evens (Tungus - Lamuts), Yukaghirs (oduls), Dolgans. When examining areas of compact residence of indigenous peoples in the Far Eastern regions of the Russian Federation, other small nationalities are noted. So, in the Khabarovsk Territory live the Chukchi, Koryaks, Aleuts, Nenets, Khanty, Mansi, Dolgans, Eskimos. Indigenous peoples of the Amur region live compactly in 54 villages. Among the indigenous peoples of the North, only Evens and Evenks live in the subjects of the Far East and beyond, the number is 17,199 and 30,163 people, respectively (data for 2000). The remaining peoples are settled both compactly and throughout the region. Indigenous peoples of the Far East (data for 2000) population Places of settlement in the Far East Evenki (Tungus) Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Amur region, Sakhalin region, Evens (Tungus-Lamuts) Magadan Region Kamchatka Region, Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, Koryak Autonomous Okrug, Khabarovsk Territory Negidals Khabarovsk kr, Nanais (golds) Khabarovsk kr, Primorsky kr. Khabarovsk kr, Sakhalin region, Khabarovsk kr, Primorsky kr. Udege (Ude) Primorsky kr. Khabarovsk kr. Aleuts (Ungans) Koryak Autonomous Okrug, Kamchatka region, Eskimos (Inuit) Chukotka Autonomous Region, Magadan Region Kamchatka region, Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, Koryak Autonomous Okrug, Itelmens (Kamchadals) Kamchatka Region, Koryak Autonomous Region, Chukotka Autonomous Region, Khabarovsk kr, Sakhalin region Yukagirs (oduls) Magadan Region Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Primorsky kr. Chuvans (etels) Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, Magadan Region The Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) In general, the peoples of the North are small in number - this is one of their specific features. Their small number is not the only factor influencing the nature of ethnic processes, including linguistic and cultural assimilation and the preservation of native languages. The level of urbanization of peoples is lower in the autonomous regions than outside them. Ethnic processes proceed more rapidly if the foreign environment is long-standing and significant. Peoples who have preserved their traditional economy better preserve their national culture and, as a rule, their native language. A number of indigenous peoples tend to move beyond the traditional settlement zones to other areas. At the same time, the stable centuries-old settlement of small peoples is confirmed by the phenomenon of constancy identified by researchers as a characteristic feature of the ethnic group, which ensured the regional stability of their life. It is a historical national property and wealth of the small peoples of the Far East. It must be taken into account when solving a complex of economic, medical and social problems in the places of residence of the indigenous peoples. There are changes in the nature of traditional sectors of the economy, employment of the population, and in the ratio of types of labor. Differentiation of types of activity progresses. Indicators of the nature of employment of the population still differ significantly in individual regions of residence of the peoples of the North. If among the peoples of Sakhalin and the Lower Amur, the percentage of people employed in traditional areas reached 25%, then in the Chukotsky and Koryaksky districts it was 80%, which is explained by differences in the settlement and demographic structure of the regions. Studies in the 1990s show that alienation from the past traditional way of life among the indigenous peoples is a fait accompli. In the conditions of technogenic civilization, the adaptation of the aboriginal population to the changed factors of vital activity is weak, the competitiveness is low. The peoples of the North, being in their native habitats, are forced to adapt, to develop resilience, flexibility, mental stability. At the same time, one cannot rely only on the internal potential of peoples, their ability to self-renewal, because this process can drag on for many decades and its consequences will be devastating. Negative trends in the position of the aboriginal population were identified by scientists in the late 1990s. The traditional structure of the economy has not been fully preserved anywhere. It exists in the form of separate elements: hunting, fishing, reindeer herding equipment; a set of national clothes, means of transportation (boats, skis, sleds), techniques and methods of fishing. The number of people engaged in applied types of national craft is decreasing. Among the interviewed Nivkhs and Negidals, only 54.9% are engaged in such activities, namely: dressing skins, knitting nets, making skis, making clothes, shoes, carving, and embroidery. No more than 57% expressed a desire to master the types of crafts. The previous socio-economic development has changed the structure of professional skills, lifestyle, needs, spiritual values. Orientation by the state of peoples towards their return to their original culture, towards the revival of national types of economic management without serious financial, material, organizational support, without involvement in social production is disastrous. The processes of degradation of industrial-type production in the areas inhabited by indigenous peoples of the North have had a decisive impact on employment in the “official economy”. The reduction in the share of social production in the country's economy has led to the problem of employment in various sectors. The solution to this problem is associated with a change in the entire socio-economic situation in the areas where the indigenous peoples of the North live. Over the past ten to fifteen years, the number of people who believe that traditional crafts should be the main occupation has decreased. The reality is that, with all the costs of socio-economic development, taking into account the equalizing and distributive system of socialism, the indigenous peoples of the North have become conditionally subjects of established production relations. Therefore, the revival of all types of economic activity should take place at the junction of the community-clan (collective), state-territorial and private business. The selection of this problem in the context of fulfilling the tasks of overcoming the difficult legacy of the past in the policy of the central authorities in relation to the Far East is directly related to an important point. This is the definition of the regional constitutional and legal status of the indigenous peoples of the Far East. According to experts, it is a set of constitutional rights, freedoms and obligations of citizens of the Russian Federation, representatives of indigenous peoples living in the Far East, enshrined in the norms of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the Charters of the subjects of the Far Eastern region and specified by sectoral legislation, as well as constitutional guarantees that ensure the exercise of these rights. At the international level, this problem has been solved especially actively in recent years. Since 1995, the United Nations has declared the International Decade of the World's Indigenous Peoples. The purpose of this action is to strengthen international cooperation in solving the problems facing indigenous peoples in such areas as human rights, culture, health, environment, education. Almost every year was held under a certain motto: Many legislative acts and various resolutions have been adopted in Russia. For 1996-1998 The Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation held 15 hearings on the problems of indigenous peoples. The following decisions are the result of active legislative activity of the state: Apparently, the main document for the protection of the rights and interests of the indigenous peoples of Russia is the federal law "On Guarantees of the Rights of the Indigenous Peoples of the Russian Federation". For the first time at the federal level, the possibility of legal regulation of issues vital for indigenous peoples is provided. This allows the work of Article 69 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation on guaranteeing the rights of indigenous peoples in accordance with the generally recognized principles and norms of international law and international treaties of Russia. At the same time, a number of issues arise that require further legal and practical elaboration. These should include the following: Specialists of the Far East subject the federal law “On the general principles of organizing communities of indigenous peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East of the Russian Federation” to serious analysis. It can be concluded that it is not aimed at protecting the rights of small peoples. The impression from the Law is as follows: in order not to think for a long time, they combined certain provisions of the Law on Public Associations with Chapter 4 “Legal Entities” of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, and this legal “vinaigrette” was submitted for “digestion” to the indigenous population. Article 5 of the Law states that "the activities of communities are non-commercial", and in Article 17, paragraph 3, "communities have the right to sell the products of labor produced by their members." If the community is a non-profit organization, then for what activities is it provided with tax benefits and benefits (Article 7, Clause 1)? Article 8, paragraph 4 of the Law permits the admission of members of the community of persons who are not related to the small peoples, who carry out management and are engaged in crafts traditional for the small peoples. But now the entire rural population of the Far East is on the verge of survival, which, due to lack of work and money, is forced to engage in personal subsidiary farming, as the main activity, trade, temporary work in the city. In general, by the beginning of 2000. according to a number of researchers and scientists, the most acute ethno-social problems are: The creation of a legal framework for resolving the accumulated problems over the past decades made it possible to determine some guidelines for the further work of state, public organizations, and the communities of indigenous peoples themselves. At the same time, the adopted laws revived production activities, but failed to ensure the effective operation of the communities themselves. New economic conditions, socio-psychological factors prevent the peoples of the Amur region from being actively involved in production activities. Unemployment, which has engulfed the whole of Russia, is manifested on a particularly large scale among the natives. In particular, in Primorye in 1996, the Samarga Udege had 64% of the unemployed, the Iman Udege had 60.5%, the Bikin Udege, Nanais and Orochs from. Krasny Yar - 58.3%, among the basins of the Olginsky district - 8.9%. The purchasing power of pension allowances has decreased 10 times. The average monthly salary of the Bikin Udege in the public sector is much lower than the subsistence level. In the late 1990s, studies of individual places of residence in Primorsky Krai revealed serious problems in the provision of housing, education, health status, and the birth rate. According to a sociological study conducted on the Lower Amur in early 2000. the proportion of the able-bodied population from among the indigenous peoples of the North, not employed in social production, was a significant part, exceeding more than half, and in the Nikolaevsky district 73.2%. At the same time, SIPN households were employed in agriculture - 90.8%, animal husbandry - 15.4%, hunting - 11%, fishing - 66.4%, berry picking - 62.7%, mushrooms - 57.3%. Most likely among the indigenous peoples there is a redistribution of activities. A significant share is occupied by traditional types of work, which make it possible to better achieve an acceptable level of providing families with food and consumer goods. At the same time, the situation in the early 2000s allows you to correct the opinion about the situation of the indigenous peoples of the Far East. According to the researchers, the idea of higher unemployment rates among indigenous peoples, as well as the extremely low level of socio-economic status of their families, is a significant exaggeration. Evidence of the erroneousness of the stable public opinion about the plight of peoples is another indicator identified by sociologists - the material and technical security of their families. In 1999 in the national families of the Lower Amur, with the level of officially registered incomes that were two or more times less than the subsistence level, only 8.6% of families did not have any equipment, 4% owned cars or trucks, 18% - motorcycles, 37% - motor boats , 2.6% - snowmobiles, 32.3% - TVs, 54.7% - refrigerators, 64.7% - washing machines. At the same time, the level and quality of life of the surveyed families of indigenous northerners almost did not differ from Russian families living in the same villages. Currently, there is a real consolidation of indigenous peoples, caused by changes in both global and domestic development. Therefore, the new policy of the Russian state towards small peoples should take into account the peculiarities of their life. The most important instrument of state policy in relation to the indigenous peoples is the federal target program "Economic and social development of the indigenous peoples of the North until 2010", which is aimed at "creating conditions for the sustainable development of the indigenous peoples of the North in places of compact residence based on the restoration of traditional nature management and management on the basis of the existing natural, industrial and infrastructural potential”. To solve the pressing problems of the further development of a unique original culture, it is important to study the historical path traveled by the peoples of the Far East. It was preserved in the conditions of a radical breakdown of the established order, the formation of a new type of statehood, the development and implementation of state policy, which did not always meet the interests and needs of ethnic groups. Therefore, an important factor in the coexistence and mutual enrichment of the cultures of all the peoples of our country is the care and maintenance of the progress and prosperity of small peoples. Attention! The slide preview is for informational purposes only and may not represent the full extent of the presentation. If you are interested in this work, please download the full version. The lesson is held in elementary school (grade 4) after studying the topics: “Our land in the distant past”, “The main activities of the indigenous population of the region”, “Life of indigenous peoples” Lesson type: iterative-generalizing. Conduct form: team game “Connoisseurs of history”. Target: repeat, generalize, systematize the material covered, basic terms, concepts, ability to work with the map. Continue building group interaction skills. Equipment: PC, multimedia projector, screen, multimedia presentation, cards with letters printed on them, bingo kegs, illustrations of animals and household items of the peoples of the region, local history literature, task cards, map of the settlement of the peoples of the region. During the classes 1. The teacher names the topic and purpose of the lesson, reports that 2-3 teams are participating in the game, which have come up with names for themselves. 2. Warm up, during which you need to remember the names of the indigenous peoples of the North. Answer: Evenks, Evens, Yukaghirs, Koryaks, Kereks, Chukchis, Yakuts, Eskimos. We check the answers with the map presented on Slide 3.
3. First stage of the game. Teams are given cards with letters printed on them. From the proposed set of letters (see Appendix 1), it is necessary to compose words corresponding to one of three topics: “Animals of the North in the past and present”, “Main occupations of the peoples of the region”, “Indigenous peoples tools”. You have five minutes to complete the task. For each correct word, the team receives 1 point. On Slide 4
there are pictures illustrating each of the three themes. Each image has a hyperlink to the corresponding Slide (8, 9, 10)
with a list of letters. This is done so that other teams can earn extra points during the check of answers by making words on the topic of the opponent - one for the correct answer. The BACK button leads back to Slide 4.
“Animals of the North, past and present” A set of letters: m, a, n, t, o, l, s, c, g, p, r, e, d, i. Answer: mammoth, rhinoceros, arctic fox, fox. “The main occupations of the peoples of the region” A set of letters: o, p, x, e, s, t, l, b, s, a, b, c, i, c. Answer: hunting, fishing, gathering. “Indigenous tools” A set of letters: b, a, g, l, p, y, p, n, k, o, e, m, b, i. Answer: decoy, bola, spear, harpoon, lasso, bow. 4. Second stage of the game. Each team receives a text (see Appendix 2), finds and corrects errors. The team that completed the work first, announces the task aloud. The rest of the points are awarded according to the number of tasks completed by the time of verification. You have ten minutes to complete the task. In total, you can get 6 points for this task. “Suddenly, the morning silence of the yaranga was broken by the ringing of an alarm clock. “It’s time to get up,” thought the owner of the yaranga, “because a big hunt awaits me.” That is why today the hostess of the yaranga prepared a hearty breakfast for him: semolina porridge, coffee and sandwiches with cheese and sausage. During breakfast, the radio announced the discovery of a hunt for mammoths. The owner of the yaranga was delighted, because how the hunt goes today depends on what his family will eat. "We need to check the bow, arrows, swords, guns and cartridges - are they all right?" thought the hunter. "Where's my sheepskin coat?" he asked after breakfast. But now all the fees have come to an end. The family wished the owner of the yaranga a successful hunt.” [Gornostaeva I.V. Morning in a hunter's yaranga // History of the native land: games in elementary school. - Magadan: SMU Publishing House, 2003. - P. 50.] Errors: 1. The first inhabitants of our region did not use an alarm clock. 2. Semolina porridge, coffee and sandwiches with cheese and sausage were not the food of the first inhabitants of our region. 3. Radio was not a household item of the first inhabitants of our region. 4. The owner of the yaranga could not hear the message on the radio, because it did not exist in those distant times. 5. Ancient hunters did not use guns and cartridges. 6. Ancient hunters did not wear sheepskin coats. 5. Third stage of the game. Historical lotto. The teams are invited in turn to answer the questions that fell on the numbers of the lotto barrel. For a correct answer, the team receives 2 points, for an addition - 1 point. Teams take turns answering questions. On Slide 6
the order of numbers is presented, each number corresponds to a certain question of our lotto. The teacher's assistant, who controls the presentation, depending on which number fell on the keg, shows the question itself and then the answer to it. (Slides 11 to 40).
Icon Sun on the slide with the question leads with a hyperlink to the Slide with the corresponding answer. Icon Flower on the Answer Slide leads back to slide 6
and so on. Historical lotto questions: 1. The material from which the tools of labor of ancient people are made. Answer: stone. 2. Single boat. Answer: kayak. 3. The accumulation of walruses on the seashore. Answer: rookery. 4. Rock carvings carved in stone. Answer: petroglyphs. 5. Multi-seat boat for collective hunting. Answer: canoe. 6. Large animal of the Ice Age. Answer: mammoth. 7. Marine mammal of the order pinnipeds. Answer: walrus. 8. The largest marine animal. Answer: whale. 9. A place to sleep and rest in yaranga. Answer: canopy. 10. A long stick with a bone tip for catching fish. Answer: sharp. 11. Portable dwelling of the nomadic peoples of the North. Answer: yaranga. 12. Light sled, which is harnessed to dogs or deer. Answer: sledges. 13. A lamp in which fat or oil burns. Answer: fatty. 14. The dwelling of the settled population of our region. Answer: semi-dugout. 15. Upper fur shirt among the peoples of the North. Answer: cooker. 6. Final word of the teacher. The teacher awards the winning team and its captain with a diploma, names the grades and comments on them. Literature A whole world of multilingual tribes and peculiar household cultures existed before the arrival of the Russians in northeast Asia. The life of the tribes of northeast Asia before the arrival of the Russians can be judged from the Russian archival materials of the 17th-18th centuries, the news of travelers of that time and archaeological data. This information can be spread far into the depths of the past of these tribes, since the Russians found them at the level of the Stone Age. 104 Ibid. 105 V. Panov. Historical information about Hunchun. "Far East", 1900, No. 91, pp. 3-4. The mainland regions, a huge territory from the lower reaches of the Lena to Anadyr, were occupied by the Yukaghir tribes. On the Siberian scale, the Yukaghirs were then a numerous people. In the middle of the XVII century. There were about 4500 Yukaghirs. They consisted of 12 tribal or territorial groups. About 450 Yukagirs lived in the Len basin, about 1000 in the Indigirka basin, about 1600 in Alazeya and Kolyma, and 1300 in Anadyr. 106 In ancient times, the Yukaghirs were settled even more widely. 107 This is confirmed by the data of their language, which occupies a separate position among the surrounding languages. 108 Obviously, it was formed in a large closed area. The proximity of the Yukaghir language to the Samoyedic languages indicates that in ancient times the Yukaghir tribes came into contact with the ancestors of the Samoyeds. 109 The narrow corridor between the Samoyed and Yukaghir tribes, occupied by the Lamuts and Tungus, was formed as a result of a relatively late invasion of these tribes into the lower reaches of the Lena and Olenek. The fact that the Yukaghirs recently lived on Olenek is evidenced by folklore: the opponent of Uren-Khosun, the hero of the Olenek heroic tales, Unkebil-Khosun is directly called in one of the legends “Yukaghir”. The Yukagirs entered the lower reaches of the Lena and in the middle of the 17th century. 110 The most ancient way of life among the Yukaghirs was that of foot hunters for wild deer. The Yukagirs in the lower reaches of the Indigirka represent their ancestors as hunters of wild deer. In winter, they pursued their prey on sleds. In autumn they hunted her with the help of decoys. In the summer, small herds of wild deer were driven into the lakes, where the hunters, lying in wait for the animals, approached the deer in boats and stabbed them with spears. For all groups of tundra Yukagirs, hunting for migrating wild deer at river crossings, at the so-called "deer trades" or "animal swimming" was of great importance. 111 “In order to cross, deer usually descend to the river along the bed of a dry or shallow channel ... in a few minutes the entire surface of the river is covered with floating deer. Then hunters rush at them, hiding in their boats behind stones and bushes and usually under the wind from a deer, surround them and try to keep them. Meanwhile, two or three experienced industrialists, armed with long spears and polearms, break into the herd and stab the swimming deer with incredible speed. A good experienced hunter kills up to a hundred or more deer in less than half an hour. 106 V. I. Ogorodnikov. Essays on the history of Siberia from the beginning of the 19th century, part II, issue I. Russian conquest of Siberia. Vladivostok, 1924, pp. 54-61; B. O. Dolgikh. Tribal and tribal composition of the peoples of Siberia in the 17th century. "Proceedings of the Institute of Ethnography", new series, v. 55, M., pp. 379-442. 107 A. P. Okladnikov. History of the Yakut ASSR, vol. I, p. 28 (-293; M. G. Levin. Ethnic anthropology and problems of the ethnogenesis of the peoples of the Far East "Proceedings of the Institute of Ethnography named after N. N. Miklukho-Maclay", new series, vol. XXXVI , M., 1958, pp. 153-154, 204. 108 V. I. Iokhelson. 1) Sample materials for the study of the Yukaghir language and folklore. "Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences", vol. IX, No. 2, St. Petersburg, 1892; 2) Odul (Yukaghir) language. Sat. "Languages and writing of the peoples of the Far North", part III, 109 Y. Andere. Die Uralo-Yukagirische Frage. Stockholm, 1956; Yu. A. K e and no-vich. Yukaghir language. L., 1958, pp. 228-237. 110 Russian sailors in the Arctic and Pacific Oceans. M.-L., 1952, pp. 276-277. 111 Central State Archive of Ancient Acts, f. 214, Art. 274, ll. 172-173; f. 1177, op. 2, Art. 6, l. 15. 112 F. P. Wrangel Journey along the northern shores of Siberia. M., 194, p. 221. This is how F. P. Wrangel’s companion F. F. Matyushkin painted hunting “on the floats”. But the fishing was not always successful, then the Yukaghirs were starving, dying out in whole families. Such prey of wild deer at the crossings was carried out in the lower reaches of the Alazeya, Indigirka, Kolyma, Anadyr. In those areas where there were a lot of fish, in the lower reaches of the northern rivers, fishing was important as an aid to hunting. Groups of foot Yukagirs lived not only in the lower reaches of the rivers. In the upper reaches of the Kolyma, Yana, there are also places where fish accumulate in autumn, heading to spawning grounds. Accumulations of fish are so significant that, using the most primitive nets such as nonsense, the local population managed to prepare fish for a whole year in a few days. Modern Upper Kolyma Yukaghirs call this way of catching fish "scooping", and the places of accumulation of fish are called "chemka", "moner". It is characteristic that the remains of dwellings - semi-dugouts, attributed by the local population to some extinct people ("omoks"), are located not on the banks of the Indigirka itself, but along small tributaries, channels. Obviously, it was here (on the main waterways that the fish goes along the fairway) that the Yukaghirs could build rides with “muzzles” or other traps, and set up nets. During the course of the rune, the fish also filled these channels, and then the Yukaghirs could provide themselves with fish with their primitive fishing gear. The names of the rivers where the Yukaghirs lived on foot - Kolyma, Indigirka, Anadyr - "dog" - indicate the important role that the dog played in their life - their only domestic animal, on which they transported their meager property. They were real dog breeders. So, in the lower reaches of the Indigirka, Russian servicemen met in 1639 settled Yukaghir fishermen-dog breeders. “People are sedentary,” the Cossacks told about them, “but they ride dogs.”113 However, there were also domestic deer on some farms of the foot Yukaghirs. “On the same day,” Fyodor Gavrilov reported in a yasak book in 1648, “46 sables were (taken) from the great sovereign yasak from the Kolyma foot prince and deer under his amanat Kandang and from the whole family.” 114 In 1659, the son of the Indigir Yukagir, Landiya-Checha, became a guide with his reindeer to the merchants. 115 The Upper Kolyma Yukagirs also had reindeer. Significant herds of deer were in the XVII century. in the hands of the Yukagirs - Khodyns and Chuvans. On the reindeer of these Yukaghirs, the first detachments of service people moved to Kamchatka. Tundra reindeer herders-Yukaghirs knew draft reindeer herding. Sledges and sleds are repeatedly mentioned in the documents. The material culture of the Yukagirs was much more primitive than the culture of their neighbors, the Yakuts and Evens. The Yukaghirs themselves described their past in this way: “There were Yukaghirs, they were with stone axes, they were bone arrows, they were with knives made of rib bones. . . That's how they lived." 116 The weapons of the Yukagirs were bows with arrows, spears, stone axes. 117 113 Sat. Discoveries of Russian explorers and polar sailors in the 17th century, 1951, p.143 114 “Central State Archive of Ancient Acts, f. 1177, op. 4, book. 260, f.1177. op.4, book. 260. l.1 115 Colonial policy of the Muscovite state in Yakutia in the 17th century. L., 1936, page 185. 116 V.I. Yokhelson 1936 Materials on the study of the Yukaghir language and folklore, part 1. SPb. 1900 p. 74 117 Ibid., p. 93 True, this does not mean that the Yukagirs did not know iron at all. The Yukagir language even has its own terminology related to the processing of iron. But there was so little of it that, according to legend, before the arrival of the Russians, the iron ax, the greatest value, was the property of the whole family. It was used by all its members only in those cases when it was necessary to cut a thick strong tree, which was difficult to do with stone axes. There is another legend, which figuratively tells about the first axes received from the Russians. It says: "The Russians said: 'Chop wood with this.' Everyone started chopping. Some, having cut off their legs, died. They all threw away their stone axes. They (Russians) gave knives." By the arrival of the Russians, the Yukaghirs were divided into paternal clans. However, strong remnants of the maternal clan also survived, such as matrilocal marriage - the husband moved to live in his wife's house and worked for the bride in her clan. Among the Yukagirs, women enjoyed great independence, and girls before marriage enjoyed great freedom. According to the legends, the lucky experienced hunter Khangicha - the breadwinner - enjoyed the greatest honor in the family. Elders were at the head of the family. Each clan had its own tribal priest shaman (alma), who combined a healer and a soothsayer. In some groups, the Yukagirs deified the dead shamans. “And their faith will be Yukagirey: in which family the shaman dies, then taking him, cutting off the body from the bones of Eve, drying the veins, clouds in a dress, they believe in him and carry them with them on deer,” the service people reported G.F. to Miller. 119 The bones of the deceased shaman served as a family protective amulet. According to them, they guessed about the results of the fishery. 120 In 1652, when the Yukaghir amanats died from some illness, their relatives turned to the Cossacks with a request to keep the "bone", for which they promised to deliver yasak. 121 Along with shamanism, the trade cult was widespread among the Yukagirs. The Yukaghirs believed in the existence of "master spirits" of places and animals and believed that each creature has its own master spirit. Of the animals, the elk enjoyed special honor. The closest neighbors of the Yukagirs in the north-east of Siberia were the Chukchi. In one of the early reports of the Lena Cossacks it was reported: "... and those chuhchi live between the Alazeya and Kolyma rivers on the tundra, they say their people are 400 or more." 122 They occupied the mouth of the river. Kolyma. 123 To the east of the Kolyma, the Chukchi were encountered at Cape Shelagsky, 124 from where, further east, their settlements were located along the coast of the Arctic Ocean up to Cape Dezhnev. On the coast of the Bering Sea, the Chukchi settlements were located from Cape Dezhnev in the north to the hall. Cross in the southwest. Throughout this space, the Chukchi settled settlements interspersed with the Eskimos. Throughout the 118 W. Jochelson. Material culture and social organization of the Koryak. 119 Central State Archive of Ancient Acts, f. 199, d. 481, part VII, l. 313. 120 V. I. Iokhelson. Materials for the study of the Yukagir language and folklore. 121 History of the Yakut ASSR, v.II. M.-L., 1957, p. 107. 122 Sat. “Discoveries of Russian explorers and polar sailors in the 17th century”, p. 143. 123 B. P. Polevoy. The discovery of the petition of the discoverers of Kolyma. Sat. "Siberia of the period of feudalism", no. 2, Novosibirsk, 1965. 124 Russian Sailors in the Arctic and Pacific Oceans, p. 100. dissimilarities, even then there were settlements with a mixed Chukchi-Eskimo population. South of the hall. Cross only in the lower reaches of the river. Anadyr, at the mouth of the river. Kanchalan lived Chukchi. 125 These data are also confirmed by archaeological finds. 126 ВXVII century. on the river itself Anadyr, apparently, there were no permanent settlements of the Chukchi. Consequently, in the southeast, the border of the settlement of the Chukchi began at the mouth of the river. Kanchalan, on the northern shore of the Anadyr estuary. Following to the northwest, the border of their settlement passed approximately along the middle course of the rivers flowing into the Anadyr on the left (Tanyurer, Belaya). Further, it passed northeast of the upper reaches of the Big and Small Anyui, descending closer to the Chaun Bay through the tops of the rivers flowing into it, and went to the river. Kolyma below the mouth of Anyui. Throughout the outlined space of the interior regions, purely Chukchi toponymy is preserved, while on the coast of the Bering and Chukchi Seas - both Chukchi and Eskimo. There are no statistical data on the number of Chukchi in the middle of the 17th century. No. However, based on information from the beginning and middle of the 18th century, it can be assumed that there were about 8-9 thousand of all Chukchi at that time. 127 The authors of the first news about the Chukchi of the XVII century. they are divided by occupation into reindeer herders and sedentary sea hunters and at the same time indicate that both of these groups of Chukchi were intensively engaged in hunting wild deer. However, even then, the specialization of one part of the Chukchi in the field of reindeer husbandry, and the other in the field of sea fur hunting, was clearly indicated. In 1647, M. Stadukhin described the economic activities of the Chukchi as follows: “The Chukchi are the same as the Samoyed, deer, sedentary.” A little lower in the same message it is said that the Chukchi are moving on deer to the Bear Islands and there "they beat the sea animal walrus." 128 Judging by the report of M. Stadukhin, the Western Chukchi then conducted a complex economy. They combined reindeer breeding with sea hunting and, apparently, land hunting. To the east of the Kolyma, there was a more distinct division between the reindeer Chukchi and the settled sea hunters. The latter lived on the coast of the sea throughout the year, where they hunted marine mammals: walruses, seals and whales. In the summer months, they undertook long-distance hunting expeditions to the Kolyma, Amguema, Anadyr and other rivers, where they hunted wild deer while crossing them from one bank to another. It is known that huge herds of wild deer made regular migrations from south to north and back. In spring they moved north and crossed rivers on ice, and in August-September, returning from the North, they swam across rivers in certain places. There were especially many such fishing grounds on the rivers flowing in the meridional direction (the Anadyr and its tributaries). Chukchi gathered to such places. They sailed on large canoes along with their families, accompanied by small single canoes in which the hunters sailed. According to data from the middle of the 1st century, by the end of July, the Chukchi sailed to Anadyr in "canoes in a hundred of fifty or more, each with 15 and 20 or more people." 129 Thus, Anadyr sailed from the coast of the Bering Sea 125 V.I. Ogorodnikov. The conquest of the Yukagir land. “Proceedings of the State University of Public Education in Chita”, book I, Chita, 1922, p. 270; Archive of the Academy of Sciences, f. 21, op. 4, book. 31, l. 277 126 A.P. Okladnikov, V.V. Naryshkin. New data on ancient cultures on the Chukchi Peninsula "Soviet Ethnography", 1955, No. 1. 127 The colonial policy of tsarism in Kamchatka and Chukotka in the 18th century. L., 1935, pp. 158, 161, 179. 128 Additions to historical acts, vol. III, doc. 24. 129 Central State Historical Archive of Leningrad, f. Senate, Secret Expedition, d. 1552, l.12. more than 2 thousand Chukchi, including women and children. By the same time, deer Chukchi were gathering on the coast of the Anadyr estuary. They also took part in this great collective fishery. Hunting was carried out at the moment when a herd of wild deer crossed the river. When the deer reached the middle of the river, the Chukchi quickly left the ambush in single-seat kayaks, surrounded the deer and stabbed them with special “thorns” afloat. Pokolschiki were strong and agile men, while other Chukchi, including women, caught the carcasses of dead and wounded deer carried away by the current. Apparently, they hunted a lot of deer. According to the data of the first half of the 16th century, “when there is a good melt, then, without turning off the babies, twenty deer get for each”. 130 Autumn hunting gave meat, high quality skins, necessary for winter clothes, footwear and for making parts of the dwelling. Deer meat was separated from the bones and dried. Bones, deer were finely crushed and bone fat was rendered out of them, which was eaten along with dried meat and used for lighting. The Chukchi were also engaged in hunting wild deer at other times of the year, using bows and arrows. Hunting for wild deer was an occupation of both nomadic and settled Chukchi. This is their traditional occupation, which has its roots in ancient times. By the middle of the XVII century. it has already begun to lose its former significance both for the reindeer Chukchi and for those who lived mainly at the expense of sea hunting. Reindeer husbandry of the Chukchi was still poorly developed. It only acquired the character of pastoral reindeer husbandry. The deer herds of the Chukchi of that time were small. Deer were used mainly as a means of transportation and for hunting purposes. There were reindeer herders mainly due to hunting, partly fishing. By the middle of the XVII century. The Chukchi, who inhabited the coast of the Bering and Chukchi Seas, lived mainly at the expense of sea fur hunting. From hunting for marine mammals, they received their main food (meat, fat); walrus skins were used to tighten the frames of canoes (leather boats), to prepare belts needed for harness, for rigging canoes, for lines to harpoons, and were used for roofing summer yarangas. Raincoats were sewn from the intestines of a walrus. The skins of seals (seals, bearded seals) were used for sewing clothes, shoes, bags for storing various household items and some products, skins for storing fat; belts of various sections were cut out of them, with which parts of the sled were fastened, belt nets were knitted for seal fishing, and lines for harpoons were made. The fat of marine animals was used for food, was used for lighting and heating the home. Walrus tusks were used to make hunting tools, arrowheads, harpoons, picks, harpoon attachments, hunting sleds, parts of sailing rigging for canoes, and some household items (scoops, spoons). The walrus tusk also served as a material for the manufacture of art objects (bone sculpture). Whalebone was used to pad the runners of the sledges, and nets and fishing lines were woven from its fibers. Whalebone was used to make cups and inserts for harpoon tips. Whale bones were used as building material (beams and crossbars of dugouts, hangers, storehouses). Hunting for whales and partly for walruses was carried out from canoes with the help of harpoons and was of a collective nature, while hunting 130 Central State Archive of Ancient Acts, f. 199, No. 528. vol. I-tetr. 19, l. 32. for seals and polar bears was individual. Harpoons, spears, and knives were mainly used for hunting marine animals. Walrus fishing was of the greatest importance in the life of the Primorye Chukchi; walruses, in addition to meat and fat, gave high-strength skins. The tusks of walruses were especially valuable for coastal hunters. Already in the first reports about the Primorsky Chukchi, the importance of walrus tusk as a material for making tools was emphasized. In 1647, Isai Ignatiev and the Alekseev Family reached the Chaun Bay on a koch, “and they found people in the bay, and they are called Chukchi, and a small place was traded with them. . . they brought a merchant to them on the shore, laid it, and they put in that place the bones of a fish tooth (as walrus tusks were then called) a little, and not every tooth is intact; they made picks and axes from that bone. 131 Fishing, apparently, the Chukchi did little. Fish were caught with bone hooks, short nets woven from deer tendons or whalebone fibers. The nets were set up from the shore. When hunting land animals, the Chukchi used complex bows, arrows with various tips and spears. When hunting marine mammals, they used throwing spears (harpoons) with detachable tips, to which long lines were attached. A bow with arrows and a spear were also weapons of the Chukchi warriors. Deer antlers and bones were widely used as material for tools and household items. Arrowheads, piercings, parts of a team, handles, spears for reindeer sleds, spoons, hooks for hanging, knives, plates for shells and much more were made from them. The main means of transportation of the Chukchi overland in the XVII century. deer served. They harnessed them to the sled. The settled Chukchi apparently also used dogs. Then they had a fan-shaped type of dog team, which has been preserved until recently. The Chukchi had two types of dwellings - portable and permanent. The reindeer Chukchi used portable housing in all seasons, while the settled ones used it only in summer. In winter, they lived in semi-dugouts, the type and design of which they borrowed from the Eskimos. The building material was the jawbones and ribs of whales, wood, and turf. 132 It is no coincidence that one of the types of semi-dugouts was called "valka-ran" - a dwelling made of jaws. Several families of close relatives lived in semi-dugouts. Summer dwellings were above ground. Their skeleton was covered with walrus or deer skins. Inside, they had canopies sewn from deer skins, and for settled Chukchi, from the skins of polar bears. Grease lamps burned in the canopies. They illuminated the dwelling and gave warmth. 133 The household utensils of the Chukchi were distinguished by their simplicity and a small number of items. Grease lamps were hollowed out of sandstone or made of clay. The cauldrons necessary for cooking food were made of clay mixed with coarse sand. According to Chukchi legends, clay and sand were kneaded with the blood of hunted animals, and dog hair was added to this mixture to make it more viscous. In addition to earthenware, they had wooden utensils, mainly dishes on which 131 Russian Sailors in the Arctic and Pacific Oceans, p. 110. 132 S.I. Rudenko Ancient culture of the Bering Sea and the Eskimo problem. M.-L., 1947, pp. 69-108. 133 I S. Vdovin. Essays on the history and ethnography of the Chukchi. M. - L., 1965, pp. 44-49. meat was laid out. Fire was produced by friction with the help of a special bow projectile. The Primorye Chukchi cooked their food on oil lamps in winter, and in summer in special rooms where whale bones were burned, pouring fat on them. The main social unit of both nomadic and settled Chukchi in the middle of the 17th century. there was a large patriarchal family with many remnants of more ancient social relations, in particular with remnants of group marriage, levirate, sororate, polygamy, etc. Even then, they coexisted simultaneously with private and communal property: private property for deer, communal property for pastures, hunting grounds, dwellings, etc. They experienced the process of decomposition of the primitive communal system. Judging by the data of folklore, they had an initial form of patriarchal slavery. According to the Chukchi, the surrounding world was spiritualized. Each object lived a life similar to human life, although it had a different material form. The nature surrounding the Chukchi was filled with creatures benevolent to man - vayrgyt and evil, harmful, spirits - kelet. The benevolent beings helped man in his labor activity, while the evil ones harmed him. They, for example, caused cases of deer, moved into a person, brought him illness and death. The sun and stars are benevolent vayrgyt. The most important being was considered nargynen (“universe”, literally “all outer space”). Ideas about these creatures were vague, vague. They were looking for patronage, help and protection. Since success or failure in labor activity, in hunting depended on the benevolent disposition of the vayrgyts, the Chukchi cajoled them by means of sacrifices practiced on various occasions. Walruses, whales, deer were the most common objects of worship among the Chukchi. Perhaps the earliest message on this subject came to us from 1647, compiled by M. Stadukhin, a well-known explorer of the north-east of Siberia. He says that near the river. Chukchi (west of the Kolyma River) live Chukchi. “And those Chukchi on this side of the Kalyma from their homes from that river in the winter move on deer to that island one day, and on that island they hunt the sea animal walrus and bring walrus heads with all their teeth, and in their own way they are those walrus heads prayer." 134 Traces of the widespread cult of walruses and whales can be traced to the present not only on the coast of the Arctic Ocean, but also on the Pacific. I. S. Vdovin managed to observe traces of the cult gathering of walrus heads near Cape Shelagsky, near the villages of Ryrkaypiy (Cape Schmidt), Enurmin (Cape Heart-Stone) and in other places. Thus, this cult was widespread not only among the Chukchi and Eskimos, but also among the Koryaks. South of Anadyr 135 along the coast of the Bering Sea to the river. Uni, and along the western coast of Kamchatka from the river. Tigil in the south 136 to the northern corner of the Penzhina Bay lived settled Koryaks. The settled Koryaks also occupied the northwestern coast of the Sea of Okhotsk up to the river. Ola. 137 "Ostrozhki" of settled Koryaks were located not only in the lower 134 Additions to historical acts, vol. III, doc. No. 24. 135 Ibid., vol. IV, doc. No. 7. 136 I. I. Ogryzko. Settlement and number of Itelmens and Kamchatka Koryaks at the end of the 17th century. “Scientific notes of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after A. I. Herzen”, v. 222, L., 1961, pp. 173-174. 137 Additions to historical acts, vol. V, doc. No. 73. but also on the middle and upper reaches of more or less large rivers of Kamchatka (for example, on the rivers Tigil, Palana, Karaga, Rusanov, etc.) 138 . .The entire interior of the Kamchatka Peninsula from the river. Bolshoi in the south 139 up to the right tributaries of the Anadyr - the Velikaya and Maina rivers, the valleys of the lower and middle reaches of the Penzhina, Gizhiga, Parenya, Yama, Ola rivers, as well as the Taigonos Peninsula, were occupied by deer Koryaks. The number of Koryaks in the 17th century. was completely unknown. Even S.P. Krasheninnikov wrote that “it was impossible to get any real news about the Koryak people”. 140 According to B. O. Dolgikh, the estimated number of Koryaks by the end of the 17th century. was 10785 people, 141 and according to the calculations of I. S. Gurvich, there were more Koryaks - about 13 thousand. 142 Thus, the question of the number of Koryaks at the end of the 17th century. requires further study. The closest contact between Russians and Koryaks began in the 80s of the 17th century. Almost simultaneously, the advance of the Russians from Okhotsk to the north along the sea coast and from the Anadyr prison to the south to the Kamchatka side began. 143 Like the Chukchi, the Koryaks were divided into sedentary and nomadic. In turn, the settled Koryaks were divided into several territorial groups, differing from one another in language and some elements of culture. “And in Penzhina,” Vl. Atlasov, - the Koryaks live ... they speak their own special language ... And they eat fish and every animal and seal. And their yurts are reindeer and rovduga... And behind those Koryaks live foreign Lutorians, and the language and everything is similar to Koryak, and their yurts are earthen, similar to Ostyak yurts.”144 The settled Koryaks were engaged in fishing, sea hunting and hunting for mountain sheep, wild deer and bears. Most of all they were fishermen. As you know, the rivers of Kamchatka, as well as the rivers flowing into the Sea of Okhotsk and the Bering Sea, abounded in salmon species of fish. Fishing was the main source of livelihood for the Koryaks. Fish were caught in rivers and lakes at spawning grounds with nets tied from deer tendons or from threads made from nettles. Basically, yukola was made from fish, which was stored in special structures (booths) on high piles. Yukola was the main winter food of the settled Koryaks. The farther north along the coast of the Kamchatka Isthmus, the more important in the life of the Koryaks was the marine fur trade. They hunted seals, whales, and on the coast of the Bering Sea - walruses. On land, the Koryaks hunted wild deer, which were found in the northern part of the Kamchatka Peninsula, and mountain sheep. They were mined with a bow and arrows, as well as with the help of loops that were installed on animal paths. Everywhere on the territory of the settlement of the Koryaks, brown bears were found, which were also the subject of their hunting. By the time of contact with the Russians, the Koryaks already had developed pastoral reindeer husbandry. Herds of some patriarchal communities 138 I. I. Ogryzkov. Settlement and number of Itelmens..., pp. 189-192. 139 The colonial policy of tsarism in Kamchatka and Chukotka in the 18th century, p. 31. S.P. 140 S.P. Krasheninnikov. Description of the land of Kamchatka. M.-L., 1949, p. 726. 141 B. O. Dolgikh. Tribal and tribal composition of the peoples of Siberia in the 17th century, p. 561. 142 I. S. Gurvich. Ethnic history of the north-east of Siberia. M., 1966, p. 109. 143 M. I. Belov. New data on the services of Vladimir Atlasov and the first Russian campaigns against Kamchatka. "Chronicle of the North", L.-M., 1957. 144 The colonial policy of tsarism in Kamchatka and Chukotka in the 18th century, p. 31; S. P. Krasheninnikov. Description of the land of Kamchatka, p. 448. were numerous. Deer were the private property of individual members of the community. Among the Koryaks there was an inequality of property, which was sharply evident to the first Russian observers. The reindeer gave the Koryaks not only food, but also material for clothing, footwear, and housing; surplus reindeer products went to the settled Koryaks, in exchange for them the reindeer herders received the products of the Marine hunting trade (blubber, skins and skins of marine mammals). “Everyone wears a dress made of deerskin,” wrote S.P. Krasheninnikov __ in which there is no cancellation from Kamchatka, because Kamchadals also receive reindeer dress from them, as already announced above. 145 Deer also served as a means of transportation. They were harnessed to cargo and passenger sleds, they were ridden only in winter. 146 The tools of labor and hunting of the Koryaks were made of wood, stone and bone. It is interesting that their axes (adzes), arrowheads, spears, men's and women's knives (pakul) show almost complete resemblance to similar items of the Chukchi and Siberian Eskimos. The weapons of the Koryaks also had much in common with the weapons of the Chukchi and Eskimos. “Their military weapons consist of bows, arrows and spears, which before this were made of bones and stones ... They used to have stone and bone axes and knives, and wooden flint, which they still use more,” wrote S. P. Krasheninnikov. 147 Speaking about the Alyutor settled Koryaks, V. Atlasov noted: “... they have a gun, bows and arrows made of bone and stone.” 148 Reindeer Koryaks used deer as a means of transportation on land, and dogs, which they also harnessed to sleds, served as a settled Koryaks. As S. P. Krasheninnikov noted: “. . Sedentary Koryak also have deer, only rare ones and not in large numbers, but they use them only for traveling. 149 On reindeer harnessed to sleds, the Koryaks engaged in battle with the enemy. “The Koryak deer on sleds go out to battle: one rules, and the other shoots from a bow.” 150 They traveled along the rivers on bahts (in the southern areas of settlement), and on the sea - on canoes. The latter differed in their size, especially among the Penzhin Koryaks. “Penzhin foreigners have canoes instead of boats for sailing,” Vl. Atlasov, - sewn from sealskin, 6 sazhens in length, and 1/2 sazhens across, and in those canoes, 30 and 40 people swim at sea for seal and fat fishing. 151 Reindeer Koryaks lived in portable dwellings, the frame of which was made up of light poles and covered with panels sewn from reindeer skins. Inside such a dwelling, curtains were placed, also sewn from deer skins. There were as many as there were families living under one roof. In the middle of the tent, a fire was burning, on which food was cooked. The canopies were illuminated and heated by oil-burning lamps, in which either bone fat or the fat of marine animals burned. Summer tents were covered with rovduga panels. 159 The settled Koryaks had special winter and summer dwellings. In winter, they lived in semi-dugouts, with an inlet at the top, which also served as a chimney. Several families of close relatives lived in such semi-dugouts. In summer they settled in cone-shaped 145 S. P. Krasheninnikov. Description of the land of Kamchatka, p. 453. 146 Ibid., 453-454. 147 Ibid., pp. 460, 729. 148 The colonial policy of tsarism in Kamchatka and Chukotka in the 18th century, pp. -26. 149 S. P. Krasheninnikov. Description of the land of Kamchatka, p. 455. 150 The colonial policy of tsarism in Kamchatka and Chukotka in the XVIII in p. 32. 151 Ibid., pp. 32-33. 152 Ibid., p. 31. booths, which were built on high pillars and covered with grass. Each family had its own booth. The same booths served as warehouses, where yukola harvested in summer was stored in winter. The Koryaks ate fish, meat of deer, mountain sheep, marine mammals, collected pine nuts, berries, and some types of edible roots. They used earthenware, birch bark and leather utensils, weaved grass mats, baskets, bags for storing stocks of pine nuts, berries, and roots of edible plants. The social relations of the Koryaks, apparently, did not fundamentally differ from the social relations of the Chukchi. The main social unit of the Koryaks was a large patriarchal family with preserved remnants of the maternal family. Among the reindeer Koryaks, such an economic and social unit was the camp community, which united the closest relatives - the patriarchal family. “In one place there are yurts of four and five, but more than one,” noted S. P. Krasheninnikov. 153 Among the settled Koryaks, this was a group of relatives (a large patriarchal family), united around the main means of hunting - canoes - a canoe community. Members of such a community lived in one semi-dugout. “They didn’t have the first people before, but whoever is rich in deer in a family, he was in charge in that family, because all the poor and meager deer live near that relative of his, and they supply them with food and clothes, and they guard his herd ". 154 As can be seen, the property inequality on the basis of reindeer ownership among the Koryaks has gone far. "Wives and children have special herds." 155 They already have the beginnings of patriarchal slavery. Foreigners were slaves. "Kholopei have the Chukchi and Kamchatka peoples." 156 The Koryaks practiced polygamy, especially among the wealthy. “The rich marry the rich, and the poor marry the poor ... They have two and three wives, and keep them in different places, giving special shepherds and herds.” 157 Exogamous norms of marriage among the Koryaks, as well as among the Chukchi, no longer existed. “They take wives most of their kind, cousins, aunts and stepmothers, but they do not marry mothers, daughters, sisters and stepdaughters.” 158 For a bride, they worked for three to five years. Animism lay at the heart of the Koryaks' religious beliefs. They inspired the phenomena of nature. They made sacrifices to the “spirits” of mountains, rivers, the sea, etc., in order to cause a beneficence from their side in the form of successful hunting, fishing, prosperity. They also had shamans who, by playing a tambourine, summoned helper spirits, and with their help fought against evil spirits. 159 Among the settled Koryaks were shamans, who were "revered as healers." However, they “treated” the sick only by playing the tambourine, allegedly “chasing away the spirits” of the disease. At the same time, the Koryaks, like the Chukchi, had many practical skills related to hunting and fishing, with knowledge of local natural conditions and their characteristics. Their dwellings, clothing, vehicles, tools and weapons were well adapted to the harsh nature, they were very perfect inventions, which only 153 Krasheninnikov. Description of the land of Kamchatka, p. 729. 154 Ibid., p. 726. 155 Ibid., p. 731. 156 Ibid., p. 726. 157 Ibid., p. 458. 158 Ibid. 9 159 Ibid., p. 455. could be done under these conditions. Their amazing ability to rationally use all the products of reindeer breeding, sea fishing, fishing, and the surrounding sparse vegetation is striking. Eskimos Eskimos are the classic representatives of the way of marine hunters of the Arctic. The Eskimos, as we have seen, are the northernmost people in the world who have managed to adapt to the specific conditions of life in the high Arctic latitudes. Generations of scientists were interested in their history primarily because the Eskimos created a peculiar culture of Arctic St. John's hunters, and also because they were one of the last waves of immigrants from Asia to America. This is the only people that inhabits both the Arctic shores of the Old World and the New, American continent. The history of the Eskimos consists of grandiose migrations, during which they mastered not only Alaska, but eventually reached the shores of Greenland, where the Vikings back in the 9th century. n. e. we met undersized "skrelings" wrapped in seals and deerskins. Traces of the ancient life of the Eskimos can be traced in vast expanses along the coast of the Bering Sea and the Bering Strait, along the Arctic coast of the Arctic Ocean to the mouth of the river. Kolyma in the west, along the northern shores of Alaska, the islands of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and on the coast of Greenland. In the 17th-18th centuries, when the Asian Eskimos came into contact with the Russians, they lived the old life of the sea hunters of the Stone Age and preserved at the core the culture that had been developing among them for thousands of years. It is called "protohistoric" in Alaska. The Eskimos lived in semi-underground dwellings. The basis of their economy was walrus and whale hunting, as well as fishing, gathering and hunting for birds and tundra animals. Walrus hunting, judging by ethnographic data, began from the end of April and continued until November-December with minor deviations in terms associated with ice conditions. In spring, at the end of April and in May, walruses lay on the drifting ice along the coast. Hunters brought canoes on special sleds to the edge of fast ice, lowered them into the water and went out to sea to fish. Noticing an ice floe with walruses lying on it, the hunters silently, so as not to frighten off the dormant animals, swam up to it and landed on the ice. Having crept up to the walruses, the hunters beat the animals with spears equipped with stone or bone tips. With the disappearance of ice, hunting for walruses continued on the high seas with canoes using harpoons. Some lull in hunting came in the month of June, when the walruses moved away from the shores. Since August, the walrus trade has revived again, as at this time the animals again approached the shore. Whale hunting was carried out with canoes. The harpooned and exhausted animal was finished off with a special pike, trying to hit him right in the heart. In ancient times, the Eskimos hunted mainly the bowhead whale. An experienced harpooner struck the animal that surfaced near the canoe in the heart with one blow with a lance. Hunting the bowhead whale, despite its grandiose size, was relatively safe, since the bowhead whale is less mobile than the smaller gray whale that lives in the waters of the Bering Sea, which is more difficult to hunt. Before finishing off a gray whale, they threw several harpoons, in which special “puff-puff” air bags made from whole-skinned seal skins were attached with a line. There were cases when a gray whale harpooned several times, carrying up to 10 “puff-puff” floats, nevertheless left, since it was difficult to approach it on oars for the last final blow with a pike. Hunting walrus and especially whale required a large team of hunters, organization and specialization of the work of each member of such an association. Ethnographic materials show with sufficient persuasiveness that such an association among the Asian Eskimos was the paternal clan. The remnants of primitive communal patriarchal-tribal relations, judging by the data of ethnography, were preserved among the Eskimos until the beginning of the 20th century. 160 The tribal community consisted of a number of small families. The most important feature of the genus was exogamy. Within the framework of one family, marriage between its members was previously strictly prohibited. An Eskimo legend tells that a young man who married his cousin, the daughter of his father's younger brother, was killed by his father. The predominant form of marriage was marriage with working for the bride. There were cases of the conclusion of a marriage contract between the parents of young children, and sometimes even before their birth. Even in the recent past, there was a custom of exchanging wives, as well as polygamy. There were cases when a person from another clan, who married and remained in the wife’s clan, was adopted by the clan, and he was called “ignykak” - “adopted son”, from the word “ignyk” - son. If a child was adopted by a member of the clan - an orphan from the same clan, then he was called "anlisyagak" - "adopted son, pupil." At the head of the clan at the beginning of the 20th century. there was a tribal elder - nunalihtak. It was usually an old man or an elderly man. His duty was to regulate the social and industrial life of the clan. He opened and closed the fishing season, determined the time of travel for the purpose of exchange, and supervised the performance of festive ceremonies. Together with the elders of his own clan and tribal elders of other clans, he sorted out the quarrels and lawsuits of his fellow villagers. The duties of a tribal elder were not elective - they usually passed through the male line, usually from father to son. Often, the tribal elder of one of the most powerful and respected clans led the entire village. Each clan occupied its strictly defined territory in the village, where their dwellings were located. In the village Sireniki still has the ruins of two huge now (dugouts), in which at the end of the 18th century. the clans Silyakshagmit and Syaigogmit lived. According to legend, from the present day of the Silyakshagmit family, seven canoe artels went out to sea for fishing, and from the present day of the Syaigogmit family, eight canoe artels. There were 12 hunters in each kayak artel. According to informants, from 250 to 400 people lived in each dugout. In addition, the places where there were dryers with canoes and pits for storing meat were strictly demarcated between clans. It should be noted that the hunting territory of all clans in all villages was common. On the basis of tribal relations, the main production unit was formed - the canoe artel. Each clan had one, two, three or more canoe artels, depending on the size of the clan. Usually the canoe artel consisted of 12 people. In addition to hunting canoes, each clan 160 D.A. Sergeev Remnants of the paternal family among the Asian Eskimos. "Soviet Ethnography", 1962, No. 6, pp. 35-42 had a large transport canoe for 40 rowers or more for long-distance trips with commercial and military purposes. The distribution of the prey of the marine fur trade was carried out equally among all members of the genus. The children of the deceased member of the clan were given the same amount of meat, fat, skins as the rest of the members of the clan. Each clan had its own special holidays and tribal traditions. There is, for example, a legend that in Naukan the wife of a hunter from the Nunagmit family gave birth to a whale. When the baby whale became an adult, he was released into the sea, and he annually brought sea animals to the shore, where hunters from the Nunagmit clan lived. This aroused the anger of the hunters from the Mamrokhpagmit clan, and they killed the whale. The legend reflects the enmity that once existed between the clans of Nunagmit and Mamrokhpagmit. Later this hostility ceased. The Imtugmit clan had a particularly complex festive ritual with various incantations, songs, dances, observing many prohibitions at the festival in honor of the killed bowhead whale, which was held in December. At the end of the holiday, the team that hunted the whale cut their hair in a special way, and only after the collective haircut did the hunters start a common meal, a meal of friendship. Then followed the rite of purification. Until the completion of these rites throughout the holiday, the hunters of the family were forbidden not only to go fishing, but even to appear on the shore. During the holiday, women in a special festive zhirnik lit a generic fire. By the brightness and evenness of the flame, possible successes and failures in the upcoming fishery were determined. The transfer of fire from one clan to another was strictly forbidden. It was also forbidden to transfer hot food cooked on ancestral fire from dwelling to dwelling. A similar prohibition existed in the fishery: here, while hunting for a whale, it was impossible to transfer weapons, oars, as well as any items from a canoe of one kind to a canoe of another kind. Until recently, the Asian Eskimos also preserved family cemeteries. So, over the village Naukan on the hill there is a cemetery, where each clan had its own specific place for burial. The places most convenient for burials were occupied by clans considered natives of this village. In the 17th century the first meeting of the Eskimos with the Russians took place. Very close to the settled peoples of the northeast, the Nivkhs also adjoined in their way of life. Their main occupations were fishing, marine hunting and hunting. They were engaged in the manufacture of clothes from fish skin and animal skins, the processing of iron (the manufacture of hunting and fishing tools, utensils, weapons). They lived in villages in "uluses", in winter - in dugouts, in summer - in "cages" on stilts. They rode dogs. They were divided into patriarchal families and had elected elders. Kamchadals-Itelmens S.P. Krasheninnikov pointed out that the words "Kamchatka", "Kamchadal" passed to the Russians through the Koryaks, and the Kamchadals called themselves Itelmens. According to V. Atlasov, in the last years of the XVII century. Kamchadals occupied the whole of Kamchatka from Tigil and Uka in the north to the river. Golygina in the south. According to Atlasov, 25 thousand Kamchadals lived in the valley of the river alone. Kamchatka. But this is clearly an exaggerated figure. From conversations with old Kamchadals, from traditions and legends, it turns out that there used to be more villages in Kamchatka, but the villages themselves were much smaller: two or four yurts in each. V. Atlasov was the first to report that “their yurts are earthen in winter, and summer ones are on poles, three sazhens high from the ground, paved with boards and covered with spruce bark, and they go to those yurts by stairs.”10 Most of the buildings in the village of Kamchadals were outbuildings, booths for drying fish. Sometimes, with one large yurt, there were up to 20 or even more booths. For a short summer, the Kamchadals lived, or rather spent the night, in booths under bark or grass roofs on floorings made of poles covered with grass. Already from the first reports of Atlasov’s detachment, it became known that the Kamchadals had “whisker bows, whale bows, stone and bone arrows, and iron is not their parent”, that “Kamchadals cut their tails and mix them into clay and make pots to make clay with wool knitted, and from others they sew earmuffs. 162 “While fighting, Kamchadals threw stones from slings from behind the fortifications, and they threw large stones directly from the prison with their hands, fought with sticks and pointed stakes ... And in winter Kamchadals go out on skis to fight. .., and in the summer they go out to battle on foot, naked, and others in clothes. 163 Atlasov found the Kamchadals in clothes made from the skins of sables, foxes and deer, trimmed with dog fur. Honby were women's home dress, honby was put on from the legs. Men at home and in the summer in the crafts were limited to only a roved loincloth. In rainy weather, they wore a cape woven from grass in the form of a cloak. The Kamchadals borrowed outerwear and footwear from the Koryaks: a deaf kukhlyanka, a hat, trousers and a bag made of deer fur and kamus - skins from deer legs. On the road in winter, a double fur parka was put on over the kukhlyanka. Before putting on a torbaza - khun, fur stockings (pamyan) were pulled over the legs with fur to the leg. Winter hunting footwear among Kamchadals was sewn from fish skin, the leg was wrapped with tonshich - mint grass. Tonsic was rolled up in the form of an insole and put into a bag for warmth. Under Krasheninnikov, a grass wig was considered the best female headdress. Some women sewed their hair into a wig. The main food of the Kamchadals in the time of Krasheninnikov was dried fish - yukola (noz) from salmon family fish: chinook salmon, chum salmon, red, pink salmon and coho salmon. In early spring, char was caught in the rivers. Late autumn coho salmon was most often frozen and thus preserved for the winter. Some of the fish was smoked. The head with the vertebral bone and entrails was separated from the fish and dried separately for dogs. For dogs, fish was harvested for the winter in pits (“sour fish”). On fishing trips, fish, cleaned of scales and intestines, were placed between two willow sticks, tied with a willow bast and placed over a fire on four props. Finely chopped nettle leaves were added to the fish. Caviar was dried in the sun and was always eaten with birch and willow bark, finely chopped like noodles. Caviar was harvested for future use in thick hollow grass stalks - "pipes" and dried. It was believed that in this form it is better to store it and take it with you on a hunt. A prominent place in the food of the Kamchadal-Itelmens was occupied by the meat and fat of bears, rams and pinnipeds: seals, akiba, sea lions and bearded seals. They also hunted deer in the tundra. The meat was fried and boiled; used in raw form 161 N. Ogloblin. Two "skaska" Vl. Atlasov about the discovery of Kamchatka. "Readings of social history and Russian antiquities", book. 3, sec. 1, 1891, pp. 14.-\; Vl. Atlasov was the first to visit Kamchatka in 1697-1699. and gave a description of the newly discovered country. 162 Central State Archive of Ancient Acts. Siberian Order, st. 1422, ll. 1-12. 163 N. Ogloblin. Two "fairy tales" of Atlasov. . ., page 14. 422 only the kidneys, liver, brains and flippers of animals were taken. Even Dietmar in the middle of the XIX century. everywhere I observed the archaic method of cooking mountain sheep meat in pits dug in the ground; a fire was made in the pit and a whole carcass of a skinned mountain sheep was placed in a hot pit with ashes, wrapped in herbs (sheep, nettle), the carcass was covered with earth from above, and it was stewed in its own juice. Steller called the Itelmens "omnivorous animals that do not disdain even fly agarics and, on the other hand, have colossal knowledge in the field of botany ... Usually they know all native plants both by their names and by their properties." Krasheninnikov, speaking about the food of the Itelmens, said that they eat roots, fish and marine animals. It is no coincidence that he put vegetable food in the first place, since he saw that with vegetable food "a lack of bread, almost like fish, is rewarded." 164 In early spring, as soon as the snow melted, wild garlic was collected in unlimited quantities - field onions. At the end of summer and autumn, they prepared for future use and ate fresh and boiled tubers of kemchiga, saran, oatmeal, stalks of fireweed, shelomaynik, mutton, "sweet grass". They ate and prepared for the future, freezing, shiksha berries; they ate honeysuckle, blueberries, cloudberries and lingonberries, and in some places bird cherry. There was a walnut trade, women were engaged in it, leaving for some time in the slate cedar forests; they stocked up nuts for the winter. Plant tubers were more often selected from nest-shops, which were made in the ground by housekeeper mice for the winter. Women dug them out of the ground with special hooks - goats-goats. In general, the collection and storage of vegetable food for the future lay on the shoulders of a woman. Itelmens ate the eggs of birds - gulls, ducks, geese. They collected 1000 eggs and more per household and prepared them for the winter. Nettles were used to twist threads, which were used to sew clothes and shoes, and nets were knitted from them. Ropes were made from the bast of black alder. Before the arrival of the Russians, the Kamchadals-Itelmens met with the Koryaks-reindeer herders wandering in the mountains of the peninsula, and in exchange for seal skins they received reindeer meat, winter deaf clothes made of deer fur, shoes, hats and mittens from them. The Koryaks borrowed the dog team from them. There were no mixed marriages with the Koryaks. Kamchadals, who lived south of the river. Ichi, met with the Kuriles and entered into marriage with them. Through the smokers they received pottery, even Japanese, and fabrics. But these connections were poorly established, as storms and strong sea waves in the straits separating Cape Lopatka from the Kuril Islands interfered. And although the language of the Kurils was very different from Itelmen, these peoples understood each other. Krasheninnikov noted that they waged wars “not for honor or glory or to expand the boundaries of their possessions, since they do not know wealth, glory and honor, but to avenge insults, because of food supplies, but most of all for the girls they could to take wives with less difficulty than voluntarily, for their wives were very expensive. 1b5 There were never quarrels over property or housing, because there was enough land, water, plants and animals for everyone. Before the arrival of the Russians, the Itelmens lived in clans. Usually, representatives of the same genus lived in the basin of one river or a large tributary. If the family became crowded in one village, then one or two families moved up or down the river and founded a new village. On the- 164 S. P. Krasheninnikov. Description of the land of Kamchatka, p. 207. 165 Ibid., p. 366. they had no command over themselves, "no one could command anyone." The first information about the structure of the social life of the Kamchadals was reported by the same V Atlasov in the second "tale". The Kamchadals, he wrote, fortify their prisons because “clan with clan often fight; that they didn’t pay yasak anywhere, they don’t have a great power over themselves, only whoever they have in which family is richer, they revere him more. And clan against clan they go to war and fight ... And they have wives according to their urine - one and 2 each, and 3 and 4 each ”Marriage was exogamous. The position of women in the Kamchadal family was privileged: they did not start fights and battles in the presence of women. In addition to fishing and hunting, men were engaged in the construction of dwellings, cooking, rowing and went on boats along the rivers with poles. The woman took part in the processing of fish, gathering, worked at home: she sewed, made thread for nets. Krasheninnikov and Steller, noting the polytheism of the Itelmens, reported that the god of Kamchadals was called Dussheikhtich. In honor of him, a pillar was erected on the plains, they tied it with a tonshich, and, passing by, they always threw pieces of food as a sacrifice to him. Near such a "holy" place, they did not pick berries and did not kill either an animal or a bird. The god of the sea was represented in the form of a bird-fish and was called Mitg. Pilya-chucha, or Bilyukai, who allegedly lived on clouds with camulas and produced thunder, lightning, and rain, was considered the owner of all animals. Steller reported that the Kamchadals recognized the evil spirit Kannu. His dwelling was considered a very old alder near the Nizhne-Kamchatsky prison. “The Kamchadals shot at her every year, which is why she is full of arrows from the izna-kan.” Gaech was considered the god of the afterlife, the underworld. The earthquake was produced by Tuil when his dog Kozey shook off the snow. The legends about Kutkh reveal the history of the creation of the world. The creator of the earth Kutkha first lived in heaven, then moved to earth, where he gave birth to a son and a daughter from his wife. The children grew up, got married and gave birth to a son and a daughter, and so gradually Kamchatka was populated. Kutkha, his wife and children wore a dress sewn from leaves, ate birch and tall bark, there were no animals at that time, and they had not yet learned how to fish. Kutkha invented the boat, and the second son of Kutkha invented a way to knit nettle nets and catch fish, he also created animals and began to sew warm fur clothes. Kamchadals “felt neither fear, nor respect, nor love for the creator and believed that everything on earth could be arranged much better, that happiness or misfortune does not come from God, but everything depends on man; believed that in life on earth everything gradually becomes worse and everything becomes smaller. 166 The concept of good and bad among Kamchadals was peculiar: everything that a person needs and likes is virtuous; everything that is not pleasant and scares away is harmful. The Kamchadals considered boredom and melancholy to be the greatest sin and even preferred death to them. The mortal sin for them was the salvation of drowning or covered with snow, climbing volcanoes. Swearing at sour fish, boiling the meat of various animals and fish in one pot, scraping snow from shoes with a knife was also considered a sin. Holidays and religious ceremonies were honored to ensure hunting and fishing - whale and bear holidays. Their most holiday was the autumn holiday, which ended with “purification” - passing through hoops of birch twigs. The discrepancy in the nomenclature of mythological creatures and the big difference in the vocabulary of different groups of Kamchadals show that the Kamchadals - apparently 166 Ibid., p. 410. dimomu, a conglomeration of tribes and peoples who came to Kamchatka from different directions and at different times. Rapprochement between individual groups of peoples already took place in Kamchatka due to its isolated position among the vast expanses of the sea. At the very end of the world, on the road from Asia to America, the Aleuts lived - tribes related in language to the Eskimos. The Aleuts have long lived on the Alaska Peninsula and on the Aleutian Islands. When Vitus Bering discovered the Commander Islands in 1741, they were uninhabited. Nevertheless, the Aleuts have their own name for the Commander Islands - Tanamas, which means "our land". The Aleuts are an island people who lived in close contact with the sea and received from it everything necessary for life. The main occupation of the Aleuts was marine hunting, which supplied them with food and clothing. In a tense struggle for existence in harsh natural conditions, the Aleuts developed in themselves stamina, courage, courage and dexterity, the ability to withstand the elements in any storm. They were famous as brave, fearless sailors. Endurance, endurance and patience are the main features of their character. I. E. Veniaminov suggested that “the population of the Aleuts in the best of times extended to 25,000 people,” others believe that there were only 12-15 thousand Aleuts. The Aleuts built their settlements on the shores of the islands. The villages, as a rule, were small - five to eight yurts each. There were several villages on the large islands. The Aleuts had winter and summer dwellings that differed sharply from each other. Winter underground dwelling - Ulyagamakh - has always been common, large. The buildings were oriented in the direction of the winds blowing mainly from east to west. Ulyagamakh looked like a barn, divided into chambers for each family. Usually related families lived in such a dwelling. Some families made special closets inside the wall, where they placed their children or kept their property and food. In summer, the families of the Aleuts moved to live in small barracks - beehives, which served to store fishing tools and household utensils. I. E. Veniaminov noted at one time that “all the wealth of the Aleut consisted in a yurt, a kayak, a park and a kamleika.” The most necessary items in the life of the Aleuts were kayaks and harpoons. Previously, they had a large 12-oared kayak (ulukhtakh) for collective hunting at sea with a double leather cover, on which 6-8-12 sea lion skins were used, and a kayak (ekyakh), unmatched in seaworthiness, with one hatch, on which usually hunter and went hunting at sea. Kayaks with two hatches were used to train boys in sea hunting; kayaks with three hatches are a later invention. The frames for the kayaks were made by men, and the skins for them were cut and sewn collectively by women. Gearing up for hunting at sea, the Aleuts put on a kamleika with a hood sewn from sea lion guts over a warm parka made of bird skins. From one gut of a great sea lion came out two kamlikas for adults. In inclement weather, a second kamleyka, made of seal skin, and the same trousers were worn over the sea lion kamleika. Torbazas were worn on the legs, sewn from the skin of various animals: the tops were made from the skin of a seal, the front was made from the skin of seals, and the soles were made from the skin of a sea lion. A wooden hat with an elongated beak-like front part was put on the head to protect against wind and splashes. Sitting in a kayak in such a suit, the hunter fitted himself under the armpits with a tight-fitting belt (of that) and boldly went to sea in the rain, wind and even in a storm. In the event that the kayak with the hunter capsized, he put it back in place with a wave of his two-bladed oar, and not a single drop of water leaked either through the sleeves of the kamleyka or the hood. The hunter could stand in a kayak to his full height, if necessary. Parkas, that is, warm and light fur coats without a cut in front, were sewn from the skins of puffin birds by the Aleuts. Eagle cradles with plucked feathers, but with a dense downy cover. Clothing and a hat made of bird skins were very light and warm. Water was carried and kept at home not in buckets, but in sea lions; to store the fat of a sea animal and yukola, dried fish, they also used bladders and stomachs of seals, seals and sea lions. The stomach - sankhukh - of a small sea lion holds 50-60 pieces of yukola, and the sankhukh of a large sea lion, with skillful packing, included 500-600 pieces. Having finished laying the yukola, the air was sucked out of the sankhukh and the neck was tightly tied with a strap. In such a vessel, yukola was preserved and did not deteriorate for a whole year and longer; the sankhukh protected it from dust, flies, mold and other dirt. The Aleuts were famous for their exceptional ability to weave mats from sea grass for covering earthen floors in dwellings, baskets, bags for household needs and small bags decorated with ornaments from colored grass, and later from garus. The bone was cut for harpoon tips for hunting sea animals and waterfowl. The Aleuts ate mainly the meat and fat of marine animals (seal, sea lion, seal, walrus), fish (fresh, smoked and dried - yukola), bird meat and eggs of ducks, geese, gulls, loons, puffins, ipatok. Each household stored two or four barrels of eggs for the winter. The "caviar" of sea urchins, mollusks, seaweed, sea kale, which are found in abundance off the coast of the Commander Islands, was widely used for food. From early spring to the very frosts, wild plants were collected and fed on them, mainly wild garlic, onions, and saran. Bulbs of saran and other edible plants were dug out of the ground with a curved knife, cleaned of the ground, dried on mats and bedding in the sun and wind. Before boiling, the tubers and bulbs were thoroughly washed in several waters and eaten like potatoes. For the future, they stocked up for the winter several barrels of boiled and crushed sarana, tightly packed in barrels, filled with seal fat on top and covered with berries, mainly shiksha. In early spring, the roots of hagelis grass were collected on the hills, they were steamed, which made them tasty and sweet. Hagelis was eaten with sour seal or sea lion fat. Berries (honeysuckle, shiksha, mountain ash) and mushrooms - porcini, boletus, saltwort (unlike other peoples of the north) were collected and stored for future use. The Aleut society was divided into three groups of classes, as I. E. Veniaminov wrote: honorary, commoners and slaves. Only honorary people had the right to own slaves (kalgs), commoners very rarely had slaves. Kalga could not have his own property: everything he acquired belonged to his master. The price of a kalga was as follows: “... for a kayak and a good parka, they gave a pair of kalgas, that is, a husband and a wife; for a stone knife, for a pair of farts (mats) and for a beaver park they gave one slave each. Each Aleutian village certainly consisted of relatives. The eldest in the clan (tukkuh) had power over everyone, but when discussing 167 I.E. Veniaminov. Notes on the Islands of the Unalashka Department, Part I. SPb., 1840, p. 165. most important issues, the foreman convened a court of all honorary members of the family and the elderly. Having outlined the case, he clarified the general opinion, which was considered mandatory for making a final decision. In rare cases, the Aleuts used the death penalty. The most serious and incorrigible criminals were considered a murderer, an evil-speaking chatterer and a betrayer of public secrets. These crimes were punishable by death. From these legal norms of the Aleuts, one can see how strong the military tension was, the danger of constant internecine wars and skirmishes with neighbors - the Eskimos and Indians, during which almost the entire male population was destroyed. Women in the Aleut society occupied an honorable position because they had a matriarchy, the remnants of which have survived to this day. Girls were never forced to marry, they chose their own husbands. If the marriage was not successful, the woman was free to leave. Boys were the main labor force in the house. Women ran the household, dressed animal skins, sewed clothes, shoes, utensils, obtained plant food, and stocked up for the winter. Men carried all the burdens of sea hunting, hunting, fishing, made canoes; building yurts was also their business. The Aleuts had a rich mythology and colorful original art. Another island chain of the Pacific Ocean, the Kuril ridge, has long been inhabited by the Ainu. Conclusion Now you can take a look at the "History of Siberia" within the framework of our volume at a glance. All the documentary material summarized in the volume clearly refutes the racist views on world history, on the relationship between "small" and "big" nations in it. The peoples of Siberia have made an original contribution to world culture. Their history is an indivisible and essential part of the history of the Soviet people, and with it the world history of mankind. It begins with the development by man of the space between the Urals and the Pacific Ocean. The initial penetration of man into North Asia occurred, perhaps, much earlier than is commonly thought, long before the last, Sartan, glaciation. 20-25 thousand years ago on the shores. In the Angara, Yenisei, Selenga and Lena, communities of Paleolithic hunters already existed, who obtained their food by hunting mammoths, rhinos and reindeer. At the same time, Paleolithic people penetrated here not from any one center, but from various regions of Europe and Asia, primarily from the periglacial zone of Europe, as well as from Central Asia and, probably, from Central Asia - Mongolia. The development of new areas in the depths of Asia was at the same time the process of the emergence of new centers of culture, including art. This is evidenced by the wonderful examples of the basically realistic art of mammoth hunters, found first at the Military Hospital in Irkutsk, and then in Malta and Buret, basically the same as in Dordogne, in Moravia, on the Don in Kostenki. or in Mezina in Ukraine. The culture of the Paleolithic tribes of Siberia, as it finally developed by the end of the Ice Age, reveals amazing STABILITY. Here there was no such abrupt turning point as was the "microlithic revolution" in the West. Bypassing it, the ancient tribes of Siberia entered a new, Neolithic, era of their history. This is explained, one must think, on the one hand, by the stability of the ethnic composition of the local population over the millennia, and on the other hand, by the fact that even in the depths of the Paleolithic, and especially at that stage that can be called the Siberian Mesolithic or, with equal right, the Epipaleolithic, there were laid basis for further progress. At this time, liner guns appear, and then harpoons. The first pet in history was tamed early - a dog. In Siberia, 4-5 thousand years ago, the descendants of the Paleolithic people, the Neolithic people, were still overwhelmingly at the level of the ancient hunting-gathering and fishing economy. However, this economy could no longer be called primitive. The hunters of the Baikal region have, for example, the world's first Serov bow reinforced or even complex type. They create a rich set of tools that serve the needs of their hunting industry. They develop an original type of light swinging clothing and, probably, birch bark boats and skis appear. Realistic art, animalistic at its core, is also developing. In a word, a peculiar ethnographic complex of the culture of taiga hunters on foot is emerging, which was determined by human life in new landscape conditions: the open spaces of the steppes and tundras of the ice age have now been replaced by taiga, a boundless green sea. At the same time, no less developed and specialized cultures of Far Eastern fishermen and sea hunters appear, and in Primorye and the Middle Amur - also farmers - representatives of a fundamentally new producing economy. Against the background of this progressive development in the field of material culture and economy, no less important events are taking place in another sphere of the historical process - ethnicity. To the west of the Urals and up to the Yenisei, a group of Neolithic monuments emerges as an integral massif, which are characterized by such features as pit and jet ornamentation on vessels and the image of a bird (duck) in art. To the east of the Yenisei in Eastern Siberia, there are peculiar monuments of the Baikal Neolithic culture and other related cultures of taiga hunters. The third large world of Neolithic tribes begins in the upper reaches of the Amur and can be called the Far East, or the Pacific. Within each such region one can trace smaller local subdivisions, which are often interbedded and overlap each other in a mosaic manner. Behind the relationship of groups of Neolithic monuments - archaeological cultures, even more complex relationships of specific ethnic formations can be traced. Between the Urals and the Yenisei, the process of the formation of the Ugrian-Samoyed ethnic community unfolded. In the East Siberian taiga and the upper reaches of the Amur, that ethno-cultural complex arose that was preserved until recently among the northern Tungus and their counterparts in culture (but not in language) - the Yukaghirs. Groups of tribes lived on the Amur and in Primorye, the culture of which, as evidenced by archeology and ethnography, survived survivably among the Amur tribes of the 18th-19th centuries. - Nivkhs, Ulchis and Nanais. Among the Itelmens and among the settled Koryaks, as well as among the Eskimos, the ancient Neolithic culture lived steadily and dominated until it came into contact with Europeans. The Neolithic era was thus the decisive ethnohistorical frontier in the past of the peoples of Siberia and the Far East, the period of the initial formation of those ethnic groups and cultures that somehow survived to our time and are in the full sense of the word aboriginal - the initial basis for the further development of the Siberian nationalities. Later, in the Bronze Age and in the early Iron Age, when stone was replaced by metal in technology, new big changes took place in the economy of a number of Siberian tribes, primarily those who inhabited the fertile Minusinsk Basin, Tuva, the steppes of Western Siberia and the steppe regions. Transbaikalia. Already in the II millennium BC. e. the Andronovo tribes developed a complex cattle-breeding and agricultural economy, the classic example of which then became in the 1st millennium BC. e. way of life of the Tagar tribes in the Minusinsk region. Then, in the steppes of Eurasia and Altai, pastoralists, horse nomads spread with their felt yurts, "animal" style and the first epic poems, with a predatory warlike aristocracy at the head. The movements of nomadic tribes and their social system, the ever-increasing needs of the steppe aristocracy for luxury contributed to a sharp expansion of political sky, economic and cultural ties with other countries, including with the Scythians-Saks and the ancient civilizations of the classical East. At the same time, the expansion of the steppe dwellers, predominantly Iranian in language and culture, began to expand into the areas occupied by the bearers of the ancient hunting and fishing culture. This is how, in particular, the surprisingly “hybrid” art of the Ust-Polui culture arises. If at first these cultural and political ties were oriented mainly to the west, then at the end of the 1st millennium BC. e. significant changes are taking place. In the steppes of Central Asia, a powerful tribal association of the Huns arises. The expansion of the Huns to the west is unfolding. VI millennium AD e. the leading role in the steppes passes to the Turks. You begin" a new, Turkic, period in the history of Central Asia and throughout the "steppe belt" of Eurasia. The first steppe empires, the first states of nomads, the Turkic Khaganates, were formed, in which new, feudal at the core, social relations occupy a decisive place. The reflection of these events is found in Siberia everywhere where the steppes could roam with their herds - from Khingan and Korea to the Urals. At the same time, the first states of the Far Eastern tribes arose. In Manchuria, in Primorye and partly on the Amur, first the states of Bohai and the empire of the Khitan Liao appear, and then the even more powerful Golden Empire of the Jurchens (Jin). These states were created at the same time as Kievan Rus, in the 11th-13th centuries, by the Tungus (Bohai and Jin) and Mongolian peoples (Liao). The socio-political evolution and the economy of the Far Eastern tribes reach their highest point at this stage. But everything was interrupted by new events of a catastrophic scale, which for a long time left their mark not only in the history of Siberia, but also in world history. In the steppes along the Onon and Kerulen, Mongol tribes gather under the banner of Genghis Khan. The conquering Mongols rush first against their eternal enemy - the Jurchens, and then against China. The Mongol conquest destroyed the state and culture of the Jurchens. After a stubborn struggle, many East Siberian tribes, starting with the "forest Mongols", as well as the steppe nomads of Western Siberia, ended up under the rule of the Mongol conquerors for a long time. Later, a new aggression began from the depths of Asia by the Manchu feudal lords, who created in the 17th-18th centuries. its as powerful as the warlike state. The Manchus conquered China and Mongolia for 300 years. They planted in the countries they captured, including Mongolia, neighboring Siberia, their Asian rules and cruelly enslaved the conquered peoples. Their policy contributed to the deepening of the stagnation in the development of productive forces among those peoples who were not directly under the control of the Manchus. This stagnation in the Far East and in Manchuria was first caused by the heavy blow which was the invasion of the Mongols and the destruction of the state of the Jurchens. The emergence of the Manchu empire did not contribute to the progressive development of even the very homeland of the Qing dynasty, Manchuria. It served only as a source from which the Manchu feudal lords drew human and manna reserves for new conquests. Primorye and the Amur region, which did not belong to China and the Manchus, generally remained aloof from everything that happened outside of them: the old primitive communal orders and ancient forms of economy that had developed over the centuries were still preserved there. The rest of Siberia was sharply affected by the negative impact of harsh natural conditions. Reaching a certain level in the development of productive forces, the population of the taiga and tundra has exhausted its possibilities. It could no longer go further than hunting and fishing, relying only on its own forces and resources, without progressive incentives, without outside support. Here, subsistence farming reigned supreme, archaic social relations existed that did not arise from the primitive community. At best, there was an interweaving of the primitive communal system with elements of feudalism. Therefore, the fact that the aggression of the Manchu feudal lords collided with the powerful counter force of the Russian centralized state and bogged down at its borders, which stretched already in the 17th century, was of decisive importance for the subsequent history of Siberia. to the Pacific Ocean. The inclusion of Siberia into Russia had its own deep reasons and corresponded to the historical necessity. As V.I. Lenin wrote, “Russia geographically, economically and historically belongs not only to Europe, but also to Asia.” , which more connected than separated the peoples of Eastern Europe and Asia. Such contacts begin already in those distant times, when mammoth hunters begin to develop the northern deserts freed from ice. They continue later, when ethnic communities of Finnish, Samoyedic and Ugric tribes are formed on both sides of the Urals. Then the tribes and their cultures related to the Scythians of the Black Sea region, the Sakas of the Pamirs and their cultures spread down to the depths of Central Asia. Over time, a Sogdian colony settled on the banks of the Angara, and the Turkic tribes, according to the chronicle, "heroic" from the Danube to the river. Yellow. During the time of the Mongol Empire, the Russian lands experienced a common fate with Siberia and at the same time became a barrier to the conquerors who threatened the rest of the world. 300 years ago, this barrier was pushed to the East to the banks of the Amur and the Sayan Range, this time against the new pretenders to dominance in Asia - the Manchu Qing dynasty. And then the peoples of Siberia forever, forever, unite within the limits of one powerful state with the Russian people and other peoples of our Motherland. It was a new path to the future for them, complex and contradictory, but on the whole, from the point of view of a general historical perspective, certainly progressive. Having become part of the Russian state, the peoples of Siberia throughout its territory fell under the rule of tsarism. But at the same time they came into direct contact with the Russian people, joined the advanced civilization, the high culture of the Russian people, found in it a powerful stimulus for their further development. Their joint struggle for a better future began. 1 V. I. Len and, Poln. coll. cit., vol. 30, p. 326. Name Index 1 Aan Alakhchyn hotun 394 Aan Darkhan-toyon (Khatan Timieriye) Abaoji Yelü 315, 316 Abd-ar-Rashid 291 Abramov N. A. 355 Abramova Z. A. 11. 31, 49, 71 Abu Dulef 300, 301 Abulgazi 366 Abu-l-Khaira Khoja Mohammed 364, 365 Aguda 326-328, 330-333, 336-338 Agunay 324 Adrianov A. V. 18, 25, 190 Ayysyt-toyon 394 Aiyy-toyon, see Yuryung Aiyy-toyon Aksenov M. P. 11, 31, 80 Alasun 404 Aldier 384 Alexander the Great 13 Alekseev V. P. 117, 166, 170, 253 Alekseev M. P. 13, 28, 369 Alekseev S. 414 Alihuman 327 Alpysbaev X. 71 Altyn Khans 376 Ambagyan 322, 324 Anahuan 270 Anderson I. 184 Andreev A. I. 5, 14, 15 Andreev G. I. 33, 262 Andreev S. 351 Andreeva Zh. V. 11, 33, 261, 264 Andrievich V. K. 6 Anisimov A. F. 26, 27 Anuchin D. N. 19 An Lu-shan 284 Aolo (Zuyuan) 335, 342 Aristov N. Ya. 19 Arsaan Duolay 393 Arseniev V. K. 22 Arutyunov S A 33 Asada 7 Asu 326, 327, 332 Asimen 329 Atlasov V. V. 416, 417, 421, 422, 424 Attila 303 Auerbach N. K. 25, 26, 63, 69 Akhachu 405 Ahien-shad see Ashina Ashina (Ahienshad) 267, 269 Ashkenay 363 Bagauddin 19 Badgey 387, 390 Baz-kagan 292 Bai Bayanay 389, 394 Bakay N. 393 Baladata 404 Banzarov D. 380 Baoholi 324, 325 Barberini R. 369 Bars run 302 Bartold V. V. 27, 291, 293, 296, 297, 300, 302, 373, 377, 396 Basandai 363 Batu 364, 365 Bakhrushin S. V. 5, 28, 358, 377 Bayakshin 400 Bekbulat 366, 371, 372 Belov M. I. 416 Belyavsky F. 235 Berg L. S. 73 Coastal N. A. 44, 351 Bering V. 425 Bernshtam A. N. 32, 249, 388 Burro S. 370 Billingshausen F. F. 16 Bilge kagan, see Mogilyan Bilyukay, see Pilyachuch Bichurin N. Ya. (Iakinf) 17, 18, 242-252 255, 256, 265-267, 278 279, 281, 290, 291, 300-302, 314, 320, 245, 251 270, 272, 298, 299 , Bogdanov M. N. 21, 28 Bogoraz-Tan (Bogoraz V. G. Tan-Bogoraz) 23, 26, 27, 54, 95, 350. Borowle 384 Boyarshinova 3. Ya. 11, 30 Brunel O. 370 Buddha 290, 372-374 Bumyn kagan 291 Busse F. F. 21, 142 The index includes the names of some genera, tribes and dynasties. Bushey A. 20 Buyan-biy 365 Byela 328, 365 Bert-hara 390 Waben 334 Wagner L. 370 Vadai 327, 329, 331 Vadetskaya E. B. 11, 165 Weinstein S. I. 11, 32, 227, 253, 286 Waliben 325 Valu 329, 331, 342 Wangenheim E. A. 11.61 Wang Gui 406 Wang Zhaozhou 406 Wanyan 324-326, Wanyan Xiyin 333 Vasai 329, 331 Vasilevich G. M. 11, 27, 32, 206, 400, 401 Vasiliev V.P. 22, 320, 335, 340 Vasilevsky R. S. 11, 33 Vdovin I. S. 11, 33, 414, 415 Velyaminov-Zernov V. V. 19 Veniaminov I. E. 17, 425, Verbov G. D. 26, 27, 29 Viktorova L. L. 11, 251 Vitashevsky N. A. 23 Witzen N. 5, 14 Vitkovsky N. I. 20 Vladimirtsov B. Ya. 27, 383 Vorobyov M. V. 33 Wrangel F. P. 409, 410 Wei 266, 269, 270, 279 Wei Wang 337 Weilui 260 Weijun 316 Gavrilov Vasily Brazhnik 369 Gavrilov F. 410 Gaozhengi 315 Gaohou 250 Gaozu 250, 311 Gaocide 315, 317 Gao Yong-chan 341 Gardisi 274 291 Garruth W. E. 38 Gedenstrom M. 16, 17 Georgi I. I. 16 Gerasimov M. M. 25, 44, 46, 56 Herodotus 103, 230, 237 Glusskaya 3. K. 118 Gmelin I. G. 15 Gogolev Z.V. 11, 393 Golubev V. A. 33 Gopat Shah 293, 294 Gorsky V. 23 Gauthier J. W. 370 Grach A. D. 11, 30, 227, 232 Grebenshchikov A. V. 23 Grigoriev A. A. 76, 184, Grishin Y. S. 213 Gromov V.I. 26, 38.44, 47, 57, 58, 61, 62 Grum-Grzhimailo G.E. 27, 244, 245, 284 Gryaznov M.P. 11, 29, 30, 117, 168, 170, 184, 227, 229, 232, 240 Guangxian 316 Gudulu see Ilteres kagan, Gurvich I. S. 11, 33 416 Guriev N. A. 153 Guryata Rogovich 13 Davydov D. 215, 216 Davydova A. V. 31, 250 Da Yingzhuang see Yingzhuang Dalai 333, 335 Dalobian 271 Daoji 337 Da Songlin see Songlin Da Qinmao see Qinmao Yeah yanglin see yanglin Debets G. F. 25, 27, 33, 205 Devlet Giray 372 Derevianko A.P. Jenkinson A. 370 Jochi 365, 372 Digudey 326-328 Digunai 337, 338, 343 Digunai see Esykuy Dikov N. N. 11, 31, 33, 93, 212. 221 Dietmar K. 423 Long Durantayi 388 Dmitriev A. A. 20 Dolgikh B. O. 27, 31, 33, 387, 409, 416 Dorbo-Dokshin 384 Dravert P. L. 25 Dulzon A. P. 29, 98, 361 Think L.I. 316 Dongeng 326, 327 Dussheikhtich 424 Dyrenkova N. P. 27 Dyulga Khan 393, 394 Dyakonova V.P. 253, 33, 145, 310 Evtyukhova L. A. 25, 282, 289, 297-299 Edigey 364 Yediger 366, 371, 372 Ekmychey 369 Yermak 5, 10, 13, 19, 358 Ermolova N. M. 262 Efimenko P. P. 58 Zhelubovsky Yu. S. 33 Rui Zong 313, 314 Zabelina N. N. 33 Zalkind E. M. 32 Zaporozhskaya V. D. 55, 200, 296 Zakharov I. V. 318 Zelenin D.K. 26, 27 Znamensky N. S. 18 Zolotarev A. M. 26, 27, 354 Zuev V. F. 236, 356 Zuev Yu. A. 284 Ibak 364, 366, 368 Ivan III 368, 369 Ivan IV 371, 372 Ivaniev L. N. 25, 262 Igichey Alachev 357 Ignatiev I. 414 Idea I. 401 Iyehsit 394 Ilbis kyysa 394 Ilbis Khan 391, 394 Ilteres kagan (Gudulu, Kutlug) 272, 273, 282, 291, 292. 302 Imtugmit 421 Inge 326-328 Yingzhuang (Da Yingzhuang) 315, 316 Yin-zheng 248 Ionov V. M. 23 Yokhelson V. I. 23, 132, 153, 343, 344, Isunke 380 Ishiha 405-407 Yetmar K. 184 Kalpik 368 Kang Van 404, 406 Kang Zhen 406 Kandangu 410 Kapagan (Mocho, Mojo) 273, 302 Karlgren B. 184 Kartsev V. G. 25, 28, 203 Castren A. M. 17 Katanov N. F. 19, 291, 358 Katkov A. F. 203 Kafarov P. 22, 342, 403 Kashchenko N. F. 13, 61 Kennan D. 7 Kiselev S. V. 24, 25, 29, 30, 159, 168, 184, 187, 191, 261, 276, 297-301 Klements D. A. 18, 19, 21, 23, 386 Kozhbakhty 363 Kozin S. A. 27, 28, 384 KOZLOV P. K. 20 Kozyreva R. V. 11, 33 Kozmin N. N. 28, 296, 377 Komarova M. N. 98> 99, 165, 170, 178, Kon F. Y. 23 Conrad N.I. 320 Krasheninnikov S. P. 6, 15, 17, 131, 132, 344, 416-418, 421-423 Kreinovich Yu. A. 409 Krivtsova-Grekova O. A. 174 Kropotkin L. A. 21 KsenoTsyuntov G. V. 27 Kudryavtsev F. A. 28 Kuzemenkey 363 Kuznetsov A. K. 20 Kuznetsov S. K. 18 Kuluk-saltan 364 Kupriyanova 3. N. 29 Kurbsky S. 369 Kurbsky F. (Black) 368 Kurmanak 357, 358 Kurov D. N. 371 Kutlug see Ilteres kagan Kuchum 358, 366, 367, 371, 372, 378 Kydai Bahsy 394 Kyzlasov L. R. 11, 29, 227, 253, 258, 287, 289, 297, 301, 372 KychanovE. I. 11,320 Kalteeki Sabyya 392 Kyuzo Kato 8 Kul-Tegin 20, 273, 274, 282, 292 Kuehner N. V. 27, 267, 280, 281, 297-302 Kupi (Chebi Khan) 272 Landy-Czech 410 Laoshan 247, 250 Larichev V. E. 10, 11, 31, 33, 262, 341 Latkin P. A. 18 Laufer B. 137 Lakha Batyr 390 Levashova V.P. 25, 365 Leventhal L. G. 23 Levin M. G. 8, 33, 347, 354, 409 Lengiel E. 8 Lenin V. I. 431 Lepekhin I. I. 235 Lesner A. 8 Liguanli 249, 260 Likaigou 312, 313 Lilin 260, 261 Limgan 329 Lindenau J. 15, 387 Lipsky A. N. 29. 30, 66, 168, 170 Lee Jin-chung 312 Lomonosov M. V. 6, 7, 370 Lopatin I. A. 132 Lor-uz odyr 356 Luke 326-328 Liao 316, 320, 322-324, 327-334, 338, 341, 379, 430 Latik 369 Magakia 217 Madagou 339 Madygy Törönöy 391 Maykov L. N. 14 Mainov I. I. 23 Makidu 408 Maksimenkov G. A. 11, 165 Malov S. E. 32, 274, 278, 285, 289, Maltseva N. A. 11 Malyavkin A. G. 320 Mamet (Maxmst) 364 Mametkul 357 Mamrochpagmeet 421 Manduhe 327 Maodulu 326 Marvazi T. 381, 396 Margaritov V.P. 21 261 262 Marco Polo 381, 383 Marx K. 367 Martin F. 18 Martynov A. I. 10, 11, 241 Martyanov N. M. 25 Weight I. 370 Matveev 3. N. 27, 315 Matyushin G. N. 11 Matyushkin F, F. 410 Matyushenko V. I. 11, 100, 170, 179 Mahmet see Mamet Ma Zhang-show 279 Medvedev G. I. 11, 31, 80 Melioransky P. M. 20, 292 Mercator G. 370 Mehrhart 26 Messerschmidt D. G. 14, 187 Metelius Scipio 233 Middendorf A. F. 134, 135 Miller G. F. 5, 6, 15, 16, 357, 369, 395, 411 Milyukov P. N. 369 Min 22, 403, 404, 406, 407 Mogilnikov G. M. 11 Mogilyan (Bilge kagan) 20, 273, 274, 283, 292 Mode 247, 248, 250, 257 Mokjang 323 Moldan 369 Morgan L. G. 26 Mochanov Yu. A. 33, 119 Mojo see Kapagan Mocho see Kapagan Moshinskaya V. I. 11, 29, 234, 354, 355 Moyun-chur 284-286, 288 Murtaza 366, 371 Muhan 270, 271, 281 Myngong 340 Mailaoseli 316 Menghong 355 Myagkov I. 241 Miaosun 325 Nagenne 326 Nanyang 317 Naryshkin V. V. 412 Nasonov A. N. 367 Nahachu 404 Nekrasov I. A. 151, 221 Nelson N. 89, 90 Neryungin 392 Ningyasu 340 Novitsky G. 14. 97, 359 Notulu Shod 267 Noonangmeet 421 Nurkhani 408 Ovchinnikov M. P. 20 Ogloblin N. N. 422 Ogorodnikov V. I. 8, 28 409 417 Ohryzko I. I. 415, 416 Odun Khan (Chyngys Khan) 394 Oyeongcheon 330 Okamoto R. 133 Okladnikov A.P. 7, 8, 10, 11, 25 77 30, 31, 33, 44, 46, 47, 55, 87 88 104, 118, 119, 127, 128, 136, 137 141, 145, 151, 153 196 203 204 207 215-218 221 253 261-264 291-293 295 296 308 310 314 320 345 347 351 383 384 388 3 90, 392, 396, 405, 409, 412 Oksenov A. V. 20 Olebek-digin 384 Omogoy Bai 388 Omollon 390 Orlova E. P. 11 Osmolovsky G. 23 Osol wola 394 Ossovsky G. O. 18 Pavlinov D. M. 23 Pallas P. S. 15, 16 Panichkina M. 3. 65 Panov V. A. 23, 403, 407, 408 Panyady 371 Patkanov S. K. 20, 355 Pekarsky E. K. 23 Peredolsky V. V. 203 Perm Trifon 358 Perfiliev M. 387 Peter I 5, 232 Petri B. E. 21, 25, 26, 60, 65, 383 Petrun V. F. 87 Pignatti W. 19 Pilyachuch (Bilyukai) 424 Pliny 103 Pozdneev A. M. 21 Pozdneev D. 266, 310 Polashu 326 Field B. P. 411 Polyakov I. S. 18 Popov A. A. 26, 27 Popov G. A. 28 Popov P. 23, 317, 403, 406 Potanin G. N. 21 Potapov L. P. 11, 26-28, 30, 274 Potapov R. L. 232 Przhevalsky N. M. 63 Prokofieva E. D. 359 Pronina G. I. 11 Pujiang 328 Torture 369 Peiman 337 Pyatkin B. G. 11 Radlov V. V. 19, 20, 30, 159, 187 Razin A. I. 261 Rashid ad-din 373, 382, 385 Redrikov D. N. 25 Remezov S. U. 5, 14, 365 Riga M. I. 11 Rozov G. 320 Rubruk W. 274 Rubtsova E. S. 33 Rudenko S. I. 8, 30 32 227, 244, 256, Rumyantsev G. N. 11 32 Rust A. 43 Rygdylon E. R. 185 Rynkov K. M. 26, 27 Ryabushinsky F. P. 23 Sabyryky 392 Savenkov I. T. 18.25, 118 Savinov D. G. 232 Sagay 327, 328 Sagan-Setsen 385 Saliha 334, 338 Salnikov K. V. 179, 238 Sapunov B. S. 33, 74 Sartaktai 293 Sarychev G. A. 16. 351 Sayapin A. K. 221 PorkV. V. 31 Northern Qi 271 Northern Zhou 271 Sedna 54, 550 Sedyakina E. F. 11, 31 Seydyak 366 Sergeev D. A. 11, 33, 347, 420 Seroshevsky V. 24 Siluandi 247 Silakshagmit 420 Xizong (Hela) 333-337 Skryaba V. 368 Slovtsov P. A. 5 Slyunin N. 128 Sungjong 323 Sorokin V. S. 174, 178 Sosnovsky G. P. 24-26, 44, 62, 69, 213, 242, 243. 245, 250 Sohkhor Duoay 392 Spassky G. I. 17 Spafari N. G. 13 Stadukhin M. 412, 415 Steller G. W. 15, 32, 131, 423, 424 Stepanov N. N. 10, 11, 34 Stephen of Perm 368 Stralenberg I. F. 14, 393 Stroganov 357 Saturday 340 Sui 267, 271, 280, 283, 310, 311 Song 333, 334, 338 340 Songlin (Da Songlin) 315 Simatsyan 242 243, 245, 250 Sam YA 317 Seerkeen Sesen 388 Xiubao Shounu 335 Shunko-haan Shuge toyon 394 Syagogmit 420 Xiao Xiong-ning 323 Xiaoxiaoxian 317 Xiaofuli 332 Taizu 404 Talitskaya I. A. 355 Talko-Gryntsevich Yu. D 20 242 Tan 267, 273, 297, 302, 312, 377 Tan-Bogoraz V. G. see Bogoraz-Tan Tanshihai 252, 253, 307 Tardush Khan 271 Tatishchev V. N. 14, 15 Temujin see Genghis Khan Tengri 283 Teploukhov S. A. 24, 25, 159, 184, 187 Thiatabit Bootur 390, 391 Toba Way 253 Tobo 270, 271, 283 Tokarev S. A. 26-28, 29, 32, 390, 392 Tokkash 363 TOLSTOE S. P. 183 Thomsen W. 16, 20 Tonyukuk 273 Tokhtamysh 364 Travkin I. S. 368 Tugarinov A. Ya. 63, 123 Tudiji 310, 311 Tuli (Yanhang) 271 Tuluy 339, 340 Fog 247, 248 Tumen 267, 270 Tundalakh 406 Tongtuhe 249 Tygyn 387, 390 Taylor A. 26 Tyumenets V. 387 Tuerey 392 Tyagrul 371 Tian Zhu-cheng 405 Uvarov A. S. 48 Ugunai 325 Ogedei 339, 340, 379, 380 Udabu 339, 340 Ukimay 333 Ulagashev N. U. 27 Ulu (Shizong) 338, 339 Umansky A. P. 303 Uncabil-Khosun 409 Uraev R. A. 241 Uren-Khosun 409 Usun Durantayi Suruksut 388 Wuzhu 334, 335 Ushaty P. 369 Wells G. 94 Uyasu 328-332 Fanshi 328 Fedorov A. 3. 22 Fedoseeva S. A. 11, 39, 119 Firsov Late 387 Fushehu 338 Fengwan 333 Khamzina E. A. 31 Khangalov M. N. 21, 385, 386 Hanlibu 333 Hanpu 324, 332 Khatan Timieriye see Aan Darkhan-toyon Heihuan 328 Heli 271, 272, 280, 284 Khlobystyna M. D. 181 Khodukin Ya. N. 25, 60 Khomporuun Hotoy aiyy 394 Good P.P. 25, 31 Khramova V. V. 361 Kublai 402 Khudukha-beki 382, 384 Hushahu 335, 339, 340 Hela see Xizong Helibo 325, 328 Hatt G. 151 Zeitlin S. M. 61 Jin (Golden Empire, Jurchen) 11, 307, 320, 324, 332-335, 339, 340, 342, 375, 379, 405, 430 Jinxing 310, 311 Jin Yu-fu 313-315, 317, 318 Zuorong 312-314, 317 Zongben 337 Zuyuan see Aolo Qibushi 327 Qing 248, 408, 430, 431 Qin Yin-zheng see Qin Shihuangdi Qinmao (Da Qichmao) 315, 318 Qin Shi Huang (Qin Yin-zheng) 248 Qisi Biyu 3 12 Qiqi Zhongxiang 312 Tsevan Rabtan 379 Chagatai 339 Changwenxu 314 Changchun 373, 375, 376 Chebi Khan, see Kupi Chegra 364 Chekanovsky A. L. 20, 59, 60, 400 Chenlin 340 Chernetsov V. N. 25-27, 29, 96, 100, 241, 304, 355 Chernyshev N.A.100 Chersky I. D. 20, 48, 59, 60 Zhang Xingji 313 Zhang Xuan 315 Zhanmoha 338 Zhanqiang 249 Zhidu 326-328 Zhilihai 325 Zhizhi 249 Zhou 247, 271, 283 Zhonghin Yue 247 Zhuchi 339, 384 Genghis Khan (Temujin) 16, 303 339 340, 364, 372, 379-381, 384, 385, 430 Chorbogor Batyr 390 Chubukov Tretiak 372 Chugunov S. M. 18 Chulo Khan 271 Chuluro Selergun 398 Chyngys Khan see Odun Khan Shabolio (Shetu) 269, 271, 278 Shavkunov E. V. 11, 33, 307, 317 Shalgan 400 Shaman (Samai) 400 Chardin T., de 89 Shakhmatov A. A. 13 Sheibani Khan 364 Shengun 330 Shetu see Shabolio Shidihuan 328, 329 Shilu 324, 325 Shintavul 399 Shitumyn 325, 327, 329, 330, 341 Shizong see Ulu Schlozer A. 6 Schmidt P.P. 22 Schneider E. 168 Schott W. 299 Shrenk L. I. 22, 131, 132, 135, 156 Staden G. 369 Sternberg L. Ya. 22, 26, 131, 133, 138 Shenggun 330 Shende 316 Shcheglov I. V. 5 Edgen 401, 402 Eichwald E. I. 17 Elibao 327 Ellay-Botur 388 Engels F. 86, 367 Ergis G. W. 32, 392 Esykuy (Digunai) 341, 342 Yuan 381, 402, 403 Jungwang 329-331 Yunji 339 Yuryung Aiyy-toyon 388, 393, 394, Yabolak 364 Yaglakar 284 Yalpinma, N. M. 20, 21, 274 Yamgurchey 364 Yankovsky M. I. 21 Yangling (Da Yangling) 317 Yang Zhong-jiang 89 Yanhan see Tuli Yastremsky S. V. 23 Yash Ak bash 289, 290 Bogoras W. 23, 26 Castren M.A.17 Chavannes E. 271 Fong Chia-sheng 316 Giddings I. L. 350 Jochelson W. 23, 131, 411 LiuVMau-tsai 267, 269-272, 277-281, 283 Maenchen-Helfen O. 267 Messerschmidt D. G. 14 Okladnikov A. P. 8, 221 Patkanov S. 356, 357 Ponosov V. V. 89 Pullejblank E. G. 284, 288 Rafney F. 346, 347, 349 Ralph E. 346, 349 Ruclenko S. I. 8 Shirokogoroff S. 397 Strahlenberg F. J. 393 Teilhard de Charbin P. 89. Wittfogel K. A. 326 geographic index Abakan, city 260 Abakan, r. 14, 68, 166, 268, 281, 298, 299, 378 Abakan steppe 19, 190 Abakan prison 15 Avvakumovka 264 Aginsky National District 216 Aginskoe 215 Agitsky town 366 Asia 6, 7, 9, 10, 26, 40, 43, 44, 49, 59, 72-76, 85, 90, 92, 93, 97, 139, 144, 151, 154, 200, 257, 307, 310 , 314, 370, 381, 395, 419, 425, 428, 430-432, 443 Alazeya 409, 410, 411 Alashan 268 Abazin 400 Aldan 33, 95, 119, 120, 122, 207, 209, 387, 401 Alekseevsky settlement 178 Aleutian Islands 23, 91, 154, 425 Altai-Sayan Highlands see Sayano-Altai Highlands Altai (Altai Mountains) 11, 13, 15-19, 29, 30, 40, 41, 44, 65-67, 69-71, 78-80, 85, 159, 161, 162, 172, 186, 194, 196 , 211, 217, 218, 227, 228, 230-233, 239, 266, 268, 269, 271, 272, 274-279, 281, 282, 284, 288, 296, 302-304, 306, 360, 37 6 , 381, 382, 429 Altyrsky ulus 378 Altysar ulus 377 Alchuk 324, 325 Alaska 32, 89, 90, 93, 151, 347, 419, 425 Amga 209, 387 Amguem 221, 412 Amgun 401 America 26, 38, 93, 139, 141, 151, 154, 345, 419, 425 Amnokkan 317 Amu Darya 40, 96, 179, 185 Amur 7, 22, 28, 32, 42, 66, 69, 72, 86, 89-91, 94, 95, 116. 126-141, 145 147-149, 153, 156, 252, 264 265 268, 307- 309, 320, 321, 334, 343, 392, 396, 401-407, 429-431 Amur Bay 261, 262 Amur region 21-23, 132, 135, 262 Anadyr Estuary 412, 413 Anadyr prison 416 Anadyr 151, 222, 350, 409, 410, 412, 415, 416 Angara 20-28, 31, tab. 38-39, 41, 44, 45, 47, 49, 51, 56-61, 65-67, 70-72, 79, 80, 82, 84, 85, 88, 94, 104, 105, 107, 111, 113, 117, 119, 120, 124, 125, 132, 199, 201, 206, 210, 211, 268, 291, 292-294, 297, 387, 396, 400, 428, 431 Angkola see Angara Andreevskaya parking 96 Andreevsky lake 96, 100 Andronovo 24, 178 Cape Antalya 234 Anuchinsky district 319 Anbian 316, 318 Anyuan 318 Anyang 184, 185 Anyui 401, 412 Aral Sea 249 Argun 213.251, 268 Arktika 38, 39, 64, 76, 95, 127, 343, 346-348, 419 Arctic Coast 348 Artemgres 142, 220 Assyria 230, 233 Astrakhanka 91 Astrakhan Khanate 358 Astrakhan 371 Asuchen 327, 328 Atargan 344, 345 Afanasiev Hill 24, 161, 162, 164 Afontov II, III pl. 38-39, 58, 62- 64, 69 Afontova Gora 18, 25, 44, 62, 63, 65, 68, 70, 71, 78, 79, 85, 105, 119, 203, Africa 42, 43, 68, 77 Achinsk 71, 377 Lake Ayat 354 Badai 44, 65 Bazaikha 18, 117, 118, 203-205 Baydinskiye caves 296 Baikal 13, 21, 28, 31, 39, 44, 49, 59, 61 65, 72, 94, 184, 196, 206, 210-212, 214, 215, 218, 249, 266-270, 272, 291, 292, 295, 302, 381, 382, 387, 388, 396, 400 Baikal coast 292 Bayraki 381 Bai-Khaka 373 Bactriana 230 Balagansk 31, 44, 60, 292-294 Balagachevo 361, 362 Baltic Sea 103 Baltic 76, 94, 133 Balkhash 268, 284 Baraba steppe (forest-steppe - Baraba) 19, 237, 239, 363, 366, 372 Cape Baranov 16, 347, 350-352 Bargudzhin-Tukum 382, 384 Barguzin 292, 387 Bardakovka 354 Barents Sea 370 Barkul 269 Barlyk 376 Barsovo settlement 18 Barun-Kondu th 379 Basandaika 361, 362 Bateni 24, 25, 117, 170 Bashadar 227 Bashadar barrows 30 Bashkiria 303 Nameless key 87 Bekdegeul 42 Beklemishev 213 Bektemirovskaya site 44 Belaya, r. 31, 44, 45, 57, 58, 65, 79, 80, 84, 86, 151, 221, 222, 412 Beloglazovo 303 Belogorye 359 Beloe, oz. 377 Belarus 78 White Iyus 377, 378 Belkachi 120, 122 Beltyry 161 Berezov 235 Berezovka table. 38-39, 249 Berezovsky region 355 Berezovsky District 355 Berezovsky jail 370 Bering Sea 32, 346, 411-416, 419 Bering Isthmus 26 Bering Strait 46, 89, 90, 95, 151, 207, 346, 352, 419 Beshbalyk 273 Bibikovo 74 Biy-Khem 268 Binzhou 332 Birobidzhan lowland 308 Biryulskoe 44 Biryusa 18, 79, 387 Biryusa B 62 Biryusinskaya parking 79 Blagoveshchensk 9, 89 148 Blagoveshchensky district 308 Near Elbany 29, 240 Middle East 40 Bogdo-ola (Gaochang) 268, 269 Bogtu-yul 361 God's Lake 377 Bokujiang 403 Bolon-Ojal 134 Big, r. 416 Bolshaya Rechka 240 Bolshezemelskaya tundra 94 Big Anyui 412 Big Threshold 377 Big Khingan 21, 268 Bom-Kemchik 291 Boro-horo 268 Bosporus 303 Bohai (Bohai State) 11, 27, 307, 313-320, 337, 341, 405, 430 Bratsk 7, 31, 111, 119, 124 Bratskaya HPP 6, 28, 31 Fraternal Stone 106 British Isles 37 Bugachan 208, 209 Buga-Chuchigay 380 Budulan 212 Buirnur 381 Buret 25, 41, 44-51, 57-61, 65, 66, 68, 70-72, 79, 86, 428 Burinsky district 239 Buryatia 28, 32, 44, 184, 300 Buryatskaya ASS.R 7, 383 Bukhori 324 Bianhan 313 Besteeh 392 Bian 333, 339, 340 Babylon 233 Vagay 237, 366 Vaigach 367 Vankarem 350, 351 Vasyugan 354, 359, 360 Great, r. 416 Great Mangu State 335 Hungary 227, 355 Venyukovo 91 Upper Amur Region 140, 398, 401 Upper Kama region 303 Upper Ob 99, 170, 234, 239-241 Verkhneudinsk 216 Verkhneudinsky district 215 Upper Chemy 99 Upper Amur 89 Upper Vilyui 119, 123 Upper Yenisei 117, 268, 285, 286, 289.291, 360, 372-374 Upper Lena 55, 65, 72, 295 Upper Ob 29, 98, 99, 100, 169, 170, 240 Upper Capital (Bohai; Huiningfu, Shanjin) 316, 333, 335, 337, 338, 342 Upper Tavda 234 Verkholensk 295, 388 Verkholenskaya Gora 17, 26, 31, 44, 60, 65, 67, 69, 80, 82, 83, 88, 105 Verkhoyansk Ridge 401 Byzantium 2/0 Vilyui 28, 33, 95, 119, 123-125, 207-210, 387, 392, 396, 401 Vishera 354, 368 Vladivostok 9, 28, 32, 88 94 141 142, 220, 263, 407 Inner Asia 39 Inner Mongolia 116, 314 Military Hospital 20, 44, 48, 59, 60, 63, 428 Voznesenskoe 138 Voykar town 358 Volga 249, 303, 371 Volgo-Oksky district 104 Volga Bulgaria 305 Vorobyevo 113 Crow River (Kula-ky) 360 East Asia 40, 43, 74, 75, 82, 91.92, 116, 127, 131, 144, 145, 201, 213, 255, 314, 320, 340 Eastern Europe tab. 38-39, 41, 49.59, 76, 96, 104, 194, 211, 251, 303, Eastern Capital (Bohai) 317, 319, 333,338 Eastern Transbaikalia 212, 216 East Sea 323 Eastern Primorye 264, 314 Eastern Urals 85, 96 Eastern Sayans 117, 268, 289, 372 Eastern Altai 30 East Dan see Dundango East Kazakhstan 228, 232, 286, 291 Eastern Ocean see Pacific Ocean Eastern Tibet 21 East Turkestan 271, 290, 307 Woju 313 Vychegda 368 Vietnam 74, 92 Weikou 323 Gansu 269 Gaoli see Goguryeo Gaochang see Bogdo-ola Garrison Garden 318 Gelgyai 121 Gizhiga 416 Himalayas 40, 71 Kirin 405, 408 Smooth, r. 143-145 Smooth I 144 Glazkovsky burial ground 20 Glukharinaya river (Sangel-ky) 360 Gobi 40, 89, 90, 141, 257, 266, 268,270, 271 Gobi Altai 268 Holland 370 Golygin 421 Mountain Shoria 66 Gornoaltaysk 40-42 Mountain Farms 74, 342 Gorny Altai 30, 227, 266, 282, 286 Gorkoe, oz. 24, 25 Greenland 37, 151, 419 Gromatukha, settlement 148 Gromatukha, r. 148 Guisui see Guihuangchen Guihuachen (Kukuhoto, Guisui) 268, 273 Goose Lake 216 Gyda tab. 36-37 Guilou 313, 314 Gian see Yenisei Davydov 388 Dalai Nor 268 Far Eastern Territory, see East Far East 7, 8-11, 18, 22 27 30 32, 33, 42, 72-75, 80, 87, 90 94 116, 117, 127, 128, 132-134 136 138-141, 144, 145, 148 , 168, 170, 184, 185, 201, 213, 218, 219, 241, 251 403, 408, 409, 429, 439 Daubihe 319, 331 Nine 130, 139 Dezhnev, cape 411 Delune-Baldock 377, 379 Demyanka 354, 355, 358 Demyansk town 355 Den Terek 373, 374 Derestuyskiy Kultuk 20 Derestuy burial ground 249 Desary, see Yezersky ulus Jasybay 25 Jebel 82, 96 Dzhezkazgan 183 Jida 214, 216 Dzungaria 267, 379 Dzungarian steppe 19 Dzungarian Alatau 268 Dili see Tyr Dinan 316 Dingli 316, 318 Doolin 403 Dordogne 428 Ancient Greece 138 Dugin see Tukin Dunayka 145, 149, 150 Dongbei 307 Dongdanguo (Eastern Tribute) 316, 322, 324 Dongmo 312, 313 Dongning 404 Dongjingchen 319 Dunhua (Jianzhou) 405, 407 Duren 242-244 Dus-Dag (Salt Mountain) 375 Dyndybay 183 Dengzhou 314 Eurasia 57, 74, 158, 165, 187, 217, 303, 429, 430 Jewish Autonomous region 264 Europe 26, 37, 38, 40, 43, 44, 50, 52, 53, 58, 59, 68, 72, 76, 77, 82, 83, 85, 89. 97, 127, 139, 230, 257, 303 , 428, 431 Egypt 230 Yechersky (Isarsky) ulus (Desary) 377 Catherine's parking lot 100 Ekaterininsky, with. 142 Yelan (Elan region, Yelan province) 325, 330, 332. 337. 341-343 Yelan, R. 324 Elizarov tab. 38-39. Yelovka 186 Emder-wash 355 Enzyayam ("big river"), see Yenisei Yenisei 7, 11, 13, 14, 18, 28, 29, 32, tab. 38-39, 40, 41, 44, 59, 61, 63, 65-68, 70, 72, 76, 79, 80, 85, 94, 95, 104, 105, 116-119, 123, 159, 162, 165 166 168-170 172 177 178 180 183-187 189 191 194 196 203-205 217 241 249 257 258 260 261 274 275 285 , 291, 296, 297-299, 302, 359, 360, 361, 370, 373, 377, 378, 395, 396, 400, 428, 429 Yeniseysk 361, 387 Yenisei Territory 71, 116 Yenisei Ridge 117 Yepanchi yurts 366 Ermolaevsky settlement 117, 203 Yellow (Huanhe), r. 140, 211, 215, 268-270, 321, 333, 339, 431 Zhehe 184 Zhigalovo 292 Zhigansk 125-127, 387 Zhirkov 125 Crane River (Karalky) 360 Transbaikalia 11, 13, 15, 17, 20, 73, 82, 83, 86, 88, 116, 145, 184, 185, 210-218, 232, 239, 242, 243, 245, 246, 250, 252, 253 , 256, 261, 307, 379, 380, 381, 385, 386, 395, 396, 402, 429 Transbaikal region 215 Zabochka-Kokorevo I 64 Zavolochye 368 Zavyalova, Fr. 344 Zadvizhensk 249 Zaisan 268 Zaysanovka 143, 144 Western Europe 13, 26, 49, 58, 76, 87, Western Mongolia 27, 244, 245, 284 Western Transbaikalia 213, 216 Western Baikal 295 Western Priobye 304, Western Urals 40 West Siberian forest-steppe 303, 304 West Siberian region 96 Western Sayans 268, 271, 274, 289 Western Altai 269, 272, 274 Western Kazakhstan 178 Western ulus (Siberian Khanate) 365 Arctic 63 Zarubino 83, 381, 384 Zauralie 233, 237-239, 353, 367-371 Zeya Valley 42 Zeya-Bureya lowland. Zeya 41, 43, 145, 148, 308, 392 Golden Horde 364 Ivanovka 142 Ivanovo 249 Oriole 31, 215, 250 Ivolginskoe, with. 216 Ivolginsk settlement, see Nizhne-Ivolginsk settlement Lime Hill 342 Izirsu 377 Izykh Chaatas 258 Yilanzhou 373, 375 Iligulun 328 Ilim 31, 387 Ilm Pad 20, 242, 243, 245 Ilyushkina Sopka 74 Iman 308 38-39, 94,392,400, 409, 410 Indian Ocean 233 Indochina 75, 265 Indonesia 268, 270, 272, 273 Ipalaigai 359 Ipiutak burial ground 347 Iran (Persia) 230, 233, 270, 277, 295 Iranian Plateau 40 Irkutsk 9, 17, 20, 41, 44, 48, 59, 60, 65 88 115, 124, 196, 294, 428 Irkutsk province. 17 Irkutsk HPP 28, 3.8, 25.97, 234 237, 241, 249 268, 285, 354, 355, 358, 359, 36 11, 364-369, 372, 378 Irtysh Black 268 Isarsky ulus, see Yezersky ulus Iset 237, 238 Isker 19, 358 Spain 38 Issyk-Kul 268 Iturup 157, 158 Ityrkhei 296 Ichchilyakh 208, 209 Ishim 237, 364, 378 Ishim forest-steppe 237 Iyus 16, 379 Kaa-Khem see Upper Yenisei Kaa-Khem district 275 Kabansk 292, 381 Kazan Khanate 358, 364, 371 Kazan 371 Kazakhstan 77, 172, 173, 179 180 183, 185, 217. 227 Cossack 31 Kazylgan 229 Kailin 335 Kayrak-Kumy 40 Kaiyuan 403, 404, 407 Kalashnikova pad 31 Kalgan 251 Kama 353, 354, 357, 368 Stone islands 20, 31, 113 Stone Log 182 Stone Cape 153 Pebbles 221 Kamchatka (Kamchatka Peninsula) 11, 15, 17, 23, 28, 33, 93, 128, 129, 132, 134, 153, 154, 156, 343, 344, 346, 410, 412, 415, 416, 417, 421 , 422, 424, 425 Kamchatka, r. 93, 343, 416, 421 Kamchatka region 33 Isthmus of Kamchatka 416 Kamyshta 166 Canadian Arctic Archipelago 419 Cancor 357 Kanchalan 412 Kaochan (Turfan) 268, 269, 271 Kapova cave 40 Karaga 416 Karakorum (Kharahorin) 20, 260, 379 Kara-Kum (Black Sands, Heisha) 272.273 Kara-Kurgan 190, 195 Karal-ky see Crane River Karasuk 24, 162, 167, 182 Karasuk 111 161, 164 Kara-hol 274 Karachin town 366 Karashar 267, 268 Karelia 104, 125 Kara Sea 367, 370 Karypospat-urdat-vosh 355 Kasatka 157 Kasatka Coast 157 Caspian Sea 249, 381 Katanga, see Tunguska Middle, Tunguska Lower Katun 44, 78, 79, 268 Kashgar 268 Kashlyk (Siberia) 364, 365, 366, 371 Kem-Yenisei see Yenisei Kemerovo 9 Kemerovo region. 258 Kergedan 357 Kerulen 251, 268, 381, 430 Ket 359, 360, 378 Kievan Rus 430 Kilchu 330 Kiprino 99 Kyrgyzstan 32, 297, 303, 397 Kyrgyz steppe 19 Kirensk 61 Kirovsky, pos. 142, 220 China 1, 41, 73, 89, 233, 242, 247, 248, 250-252, 265, 267, 269-274, 277, 3] 1-3 16, 319, 320, 332, 333, 338-406, 430 Kiya 258, 361, 362, 37? Knyazhev town 366 Kobdo 268, 376 Goguryeo (Gaoli) 308, 311 314 315, 317, 319, 331 Principality Code 369 Kozlova pereima 96 Kozlovsky burial ground 304 Kokonovskie burial mounds 237 Kokorevo I, IV tab. 38-39, 62-64, 78 Gokju 330 Kokel 255-257 Kolyma 16, 94, 126, 151, 347, 350-352, 409-412, 415, 419 Kola Bay 210 Commander Islands (Tanamas) 128, 425, 426 Komsomolsk-on-Amur (Komsomolsk) 89, 134, 150, 264 Konda 25, 89, 150, 353, 354, 372 Condon (Post) tabl. 38-39, 89, 129,130, 133-135, 137, 139, 150, 219, 264 Konduisky town 21, 379 Konghomjin 330 Copenskoe settlement 297 Kopet-Dag 40 Korean Peninsula 311, 315, 319 Korendo 400 Korea 73, 129, 141-145, 265, 320, 323.327, 331, 407, 430 Kore 315-317, 320, 323, 324, 326, 328,329, 331-333, 338 Kosogol 216, 267, 376 Kostenki I 53, 59, 60, 428 Kosva 354 Kotokel 212 Kochergino 25 Kochetovo 373 Kosho-Tsaidam 273 Kraskino 319 Kraskinskoe settlement 319 Krasnoturansk 187 Krasnoyarsk 18, 25, 44, 62, 79, 95.117-119, 169, 179, 185, 203, 377.378, 381 Krasnoyarsk HPP 28, 30 Krasnoyarsk forest-steppe 204 Krasnoyarsk Sopka 342 Krasnoyarsk Territory 30 Krasny Yar (Angara) 44, 60, 71, 84 Krasny Yar (Ob) 186 Cross, hall. 411, 412 Krivinskoe 24 Crooked key 87 Krotovo, II, VII 100, 170 Round Hill 319 Kruzenshtern, cape 151 Where 41, 218, 294-296 Kudinsky steppe 292 Kulyrge 275, 278 Kuadeeevo 66 Kuznetsk 376 Kuznetsk steppe 271 Kuznetsky Alatau 17, 258, 299 Kuznetsk burial ground 100, 104 Kuibyshevsk (Rubetsu) 158 Kukelevo 33, 264 Kuku-hot see Guihuachen Kulayka 241 Kula-ky see Raven River Kulary 366 Kullaty, settlement 120-122, 207-209 Kullaty-Yuryakh, r. 121, 208 Kultuk 20, 153, 154 Kulunda steppe 241 Culegan 359 Kungur cave 14 Kundat-yul 361 Kunkur 212 Cuckoo 354 Kurgan 238 Kurgan region 6, 7, 238 Kurilsk 157 Kuril Islands (Kuril Ridge, Kuriles) 11, 28, 33, 91, 154, 156- 158, 346, 423, 426 Kurile Lake 344 Kurota 30, 161 Kusyantun 90 Kılarsa I 122 Kyrgyz-nur 296 Kytyl-Dyura 392 Cam see the Yenisei Cam-camjut see the Yenisei Kateme 392 Qianzhou 373, 375 Kyakhta 20, 61 Camp Garden 98 Rooks 117, 185 Ladeyskoe settlement 203 Lazovsky district 264 Laiyuan 323 Lalin 403 Lampyl-ky, see Eagle River Lama, see Baikal Laptev, sea 38, 71 Lariak 354 Arctic Sea see Arctic Ocean Arctic Ocean see Arctic Ocean Lena 44, 55, 61, 65-67, 70, 72, 76, 77 84, 94, 95, 104, 113, 119, 123, 125-127, 151, 201, 206-209, 211, 292, 296, 381, 382, 387, 388, 392, 95, 396, 400, 401, 409, 428 Lenyanabad 40 Leningrad 9, 16, 94, 204, 380 Leninsky district 33 Lenkovka 31, 67, 79-81, 83 Lop-nor 268 Lawva 234, 354, 368 I Spatula 423 Leulan 249, 444 Lukechen 327 Lailyuhe 332 Liaodong 268, 317, 324, 404, 406 Liaodong Bay 270 Liaoning 404 Liaoyang 313, 322, 324, 340 Lyapin town 369 Lyapinskaya parish 357 Magadan 344, 345 Mayhe, der. 74 Maihe, r. 74, 143, 261 Makarov 65 Malay Archipelago 145 Malaya Derbina 119 Malaya Perm 368 Small Pad 262, 264 Minor Heta tab. 38-39 Small Kopyony 24, 164 Small Anyui 412 Small Yenisei 285, 286 Small Cat 41 Small cape 178 Malta 25, pl. 38-39, 41-52, 55-61, 65, 66, 68, 71, 72, 79, 86, 428 Mammoth Cave 48 Mangazeya 29 Manga see Cupid Manzurka 381 Manhai, Mt. 218, 295, 296 Mankhai settlement (Manhai) 295, 296 Manchuria 22, 89, 145, 217, 248, 265, 267, 284, 313, 319, 320, 324, 339, 343, 381, 402, 404-408, 430 Mariinsk 258 Mariinsky District 18 Markhachan 44, 65 Majilin 329, 331 Bear Islands 351, 352 "Bear cheeks", gorge 136 Mezhegey settlement 373 Mezhegey mines 374 Mezin 58, 428 Meret I, II 99 Miass 237, 238 Mussel 230, 233 Milimishihan 327 Minus 218 Minusinsk 18 Minusinsk (Khakass-Minusinsk) depression 10, 16, 18, 20, 24, 25, 117, 159, 165, 170, 184-187, 189, 196, 242, 255, 257, 258, 275, 277-279, 281 , 296-299, 302, 373, 29, 30, 44, 62 172, 176, 181, 204-206, 240, 260, 266, 272, 282,
285, 286, 429 Minusinsk Territory 212, 213, 429 Minusinsky district 25 Mikhailovka 258i 24, 27, 159, 172, 210, Burial grounds 98 Mogoytuy 216 Moisenka 161 Moluccas 201 Molchanovo 29, 360 Mongolia 5 20 21, 32, 38, 40, 41, 59, 63, 66 69, 75, 86, 89, 116, 41, 145, 180, 184, 21,1 215, 217, 218, 228, 232, 242 243, 245, 248. 250, 251,
255. 260 266, 267, 269, 272, 274, 281, 282, 288, 289, 300, 307, 311,
313, 372, 373,379, 381, 382, 384, 386, 428, 430 Mongol Empire 385, 386, 431 Mongolian People's Republic (MPR) 44, 89, 215, 216, 251, 273 Mongolian Altai 40, 267, 268, 270, Moravia 428 Moraika 170 Moscow 9, 369, 370-372 Muscovite state, see Russian state Mokhovaya, r. tab. 38-39 Mojie 316, 317 Mudanjiang (Khurkha-bira) 316, 319, 405, Mukden 322, 403 Moulin 407 Munch 120-122 Muslyumovo 249 Mongun-taiga 275, 277 Naa-Khem see Small Yenisei Nazarov 19 Nayfeld 309, 310 Narym Territory 241, 305 Narym prison 360 Naukan 350, 421 Nakhodka, bay 73 Misunderstandings, oh 151-153 Nerchinsk 13, 212 Nerchinsk district 15 Lower Amur Region 395 Lower Irtysh 305 Lower Ob 11, 29, 96, 97, 232, 234, 241, 303, 304, 355 Lower Chulymye 306 Lower Seredkino 31 Nizhne-Ivolginsk settlement 243, 244, 249, 250, 251 Nizhne-Kamchatskiy Ostrog 424 Nizhnekolymsk 151 Lower Amur 128, 133, 134, 139, 141, 142, 145, 147, 150, 157, 334, 401-403 Lower Tobol 364 Lower Angara 123 Lower Berezovka 212 Lower Buret 44 Lower Kolyma 346 Lower Lena 122, 151 Lower Ob 14, 99 Nikolka 343 Nikolskoye settlement 343. 344 Novaya Zemlya 367, 370 Novgorod (Veliky) 367, 368 Novgorod Land 367 Novgorod Republic 367, 368 Novo-1 rigorievka 249 Novokuskovskaya parking 98 Novopetrivka 33 145i 146, 148-150 Novopetrivka 1, II, 146 149 150 Novopokrovka 150, 310 Novoselovo 176 Novosibirsk 8, 9, 29, 186 New Siberian Islands 63 Nogliki 154, 156 Noin-Ula 20, 242, 244, 246, 249 Noin-Ula kurgans 256 Nonnie 317, 320, 322 Nurgan (Nulukhan, Nurukhan) 403-407 Nurgan Sea 407 Nyaksimvol 234 Nian Shan 268 Obdorsky Ostrog 370 Gulf of Ob 235, 370 Obusin burial grounds 386 Ob 11, 17, 18, 25, 29, tab. 38-39, 44, 94, 96, 97, 165, 172, 177, 180, 185, 186, 190, 234, 235, 241, 266, 268, 275, 303, 306, 354, 356, 359-361, 363, 366, 367, 369-371, 376 Ob-Yenisei interfluve 306 Ovyursky district 289 Oglakhty burial ground 249, 255 Odolin 403 Ozen-Ala-Belig 229 Oymak 373, 374 Oirotia 27 Okinina 384 Windows 380 Okunev ulus 165 Okunevsky burial ground 168 Olekma 387, 396 Olekminsk 120, 125, 209, 392 Olenek 95, 401, 409 Oleneostrovskiy burial ground 210 Reindeer sovkhoz (on Mayhe) 143 Olga, bay 261 Olga, pos. 264 Olginsky district 264 Olginsky, about. 151, 152 Olkhon 292, 295, 296 Om 238, 365, 366 Ongin-goal 268 Lake Onega 125, 127 Onon 20, 212-214, 216, 250, 268, 379, 381, 430 Ordos 61, 116, 184, 185, 227 248, 249, 270 Ordynske 100 Eagle River (Lampyl-ky) 360)ro 400 Orkhon29260 59. 266. 268, 273, 285, 291, 302.373,376,381 Osinovka 73, 74, 88. 91, 143, 308. 402 Aspen Lake 149, 150, 309 Osinovsky hill 73-75, 142 Osinovskoye settlement 87 Otuken 271-273 Okhotsk 416 Sea of Okhotsk 154, 395, 400, 415, 416 Okhotsk coast 11, 33, 151, 153, 344, 346, 395, 400 Eshurkovo 65, 67, 68, 71, 82, 105 Pazyryk 217, 227-230, 233 Pazyryk, r. 227 Palana 416 Pamir 40, 431 Parabel 359, 360 Guy 416 Parthia 230 Pachanga 360 Beijing 23, 314, 339 Pelym 354, 355, 368 Punjab 42 Penzhina 416 Penzhina Bay 415 Resettlement point 44, 203 Perm 249, 368 Persia see Iran Pershino 239 Sandy, Peninsula 22, 32, 33, 262, 263 Petersburg see Leningrad Peter the Great, Hall. 32, 90 Petrovskaya 388 Petropavlovsk (Kamchatsky) 134, 153 Pechora 234, 305, 353. 368, 369 Pechora Land 367 Pidengshui 329 Pingliang 268, 269 Written, der. 100, 101 Written, oh 388 Plemkhoz, parking 122 Volga region 184, 358, 371 Podgornoe 24, 241 Understone 297 Dryness 161 Pokrovskoe 120, 208, 209 Polynesia 139 Plc 264, 265 Poland 370 Polar Loberezhye 76 Arctic Circle 95, 125 Pomorie 370, 371 Popelki 264 Popigay 94 Port Bajin 286 Posyet 261 Potchevash 237 Mail see Condon Cisbaikalia 385 Amur Region 32 33, 72, 92, 116, 127, 129, 132, 135, 137, 218, 221, 261, 264, 340, 395, 401, 402 404 406, 408, 430 Angara region 104, 292, 384, 395, 400 Aral Sea 103, 104, 183 Baikal region 10, 20, 25 27, 31, 44, 71, 76, 79, 80, 82-84 86-88, 95, 96, 104, 105, 107-109, 111, 113-121, 123, 124, 127 , 133, 139 148, 153, 196-198, 200, 201-205, 207-211, 222, 242, 292, 293, 372 381-387, 390, 400, 428 Baltika 76, 236 Priirtyshe 11, 233, 234, 238, 239, 303-305, 366 Caspian lowland 40 Prikamye 305, 357, 368, 372 Primorsky Krai 72, 141, 142, 308, 319 Primorye 21, 22, 32, 33, 73, 87, 88, 90, 93 94 127, 130, 132-135, 141-145, 150 153, 156, 157, 218-221, 261, 262 264, 265, 308 , 309, 314, 316, 319 320, 324-326, 329-332, 337, 340, 341-343, 406-408, 429, 430 Priobye 29, 97, 104, 241, 305, 353, 359, 362, 363 Pritobolye 233 Primorye 239-241, 362, 363 Urals 13, 24, 78, 85, 118, 172, 217, 233, 242, 357, 358, 368, 371, 372 Prikhankay lowland 308 Black Sea 165, 190, 217, 431 Prichulymie 362, 363 Pugangshui 324 Pustozersky Ostrog 370 Pujal 324 Pyeongyoungjin 330 Phusun 218 Panniolin 327 Pyasina 370 Pyatirechye 329 Razdolnoye 88, 90, 402 "Rachevo Settlement" 359 Rome 277 Horn town 370 Russian Empire see Russian State Russian state see Russian state Russia see Russian state of the RSFSR 104, 204, 210 Rubetsu, see Kuibyshevsk Rusanova, b. 416 Russian Plain 40 . Russian state 6, 7, 9, 13, 14, 1о, 18. 19, 22, 23, 28, 30-33 48, 187 217, 305, 310, 353, 367-372, 381, 386, 395, 408, 410, 431 Rus' see Russian state Ryrkapiy 415 Ryutino 111 Saadak-Terek 376 Saadakh yyaabyt 392 Sagli 228, 231, 254 Sagly-Bazhi II (Sagly barrows) 227, 229, 232 Sagly valley 228 Sayn Shand 141 Sakachi-Alyan 136, 137-140, 309 Salbyk 191 Salbyk burial mounds 195 Salekhard I, II 25, 234, 236 Samus, p. 100 Samus I. II, III 98, 100, 101, 169-172,178 Samuska 100 Sangar-Khaya 208 Sanga-Yuryakh tab. 38-39 Sangel-ky see Glukharinaya river Toboggan Cape 61, 65, 66, 72, 216 Sanwei 404 Sanzhou 332 Saragash 25 Saralinsky district 297 Sargatka 237 Sargol 139 Sakhalin 11, 22, 28, 33, 128, 133, 154-156, 220, 221, 346, 401 Sayano-Altai Highlands (Sayan-Altai, Altai-Sayan Highlands) 117, 159, 166, 170, 186, 266, 270, 274, 275,285, 306, 362, 363 Sayan HPP 28, 30 Sayan prison 15 Sayan (Sayan Mountains, Sayan Range, Sayan Highlands) 14, 17, 18, 86, 165, 172, 252, 258, 266, 271, 285, 287,296, 299, 302, 377. 431 Svirsk 31, 109-111 North Asia 30, 44, 53, 59, 69, 71.76, 82, 94, 116, 121, 126, 127, 141, North America tab. 38-39, 89, 91, Northern Europe 26, pl. 38-39, 80.83, 112, 127, 136 North India 40 North Korea 307, 317 Northern Manchuria 14 Northern Mongolia 75, 274 Northern Scandinavia 211 Northern Sosva 25, 97, 234, 235, 369 Northern Yakutia 77, 222 Northern Japan 90, 310 Northern Trans-Urals 367 Northern Primorye 142 Northern Urals 234 Northern Black Sea region 218 Northern Altai 27, 360, 362, 363 Northern Kazakhstan 71, 303 North China 21, 38, 140, 253, 266,300, 307, 339 Arctic Ocean (Arctic Ocean. Arctic Sea) 5, 16, 47, 72, 76, 94, 126, 207, 211, 306, 370, 400, 409-411, 414, 415, 419 Northern Tibet 228 Northeast Asia 7, 9, 10, 22, 26, 33, 46, 73, 93, 131, 132, 150, 151,346, 408 Northeast Tuva 372 Northeast Pomorie 370 Northeast Kazakhstan 304 Northeast China 407, 408 Northwest Asia 20, 367, 370. Northwest America 132 Northwest Europe Table 38-39 North West India 71 Northwestern Mongolia 21, 286, 296 Northwestern Yakutia 95 Northwest Bohai 316 Saddle, cape 262 Selemdzha 401 Selenga 22, 44, 61, 65-70 72 84 104 106, 206, 211-216, 250, 266- 273, 284, 285, 292, 381, 384 387 428 Selenginsky district 15 Semyonovka 31 Semipyatnaya, pad 261, 264 Semirechye 288, 290 Senkina Shapka 143, 264 Sergeevna 148, 149, 308 Heart-Stone 415 Serov burial ground 31 Siberian 365 Siberian land 369, 371 Siberian Khanate (Siberian "yurt") 13-15, 19, 358, 364-368, 371, 372,378 Siberia, sat. see Kashlyk Cape Sivuy 343, 344 Siglan 345 Sidemi 21, 261, 262 Sikteeh 207, 209 Silla 315, 317 Silgumja 209 Silyaohe see Shara-muren Sinara 238 Blue rocks 264, 265 Xing Liao 317 xingxiang 328 Xinjiang 89 Xipinghe 335 Shirataki 90 Sireniki 32, 350, 420 Sikhote-Alin 87, 320 Scandinavia 14, 127, 211 Scythia 196, 217 Slavyanka 341 Sobakina, b. 117 Soviet Union (USSR) 5-7, 9, 28, 33, 34, tab. 38-39, 44, 47, 78, 205 Sogd 288, 290 United States of America (USA) 6, 8 Sokolchi 264 Salt lake (Harlon-kel) 66 Sortynya 97 Sosnovka 373 Sosva 354, 359 Sotnikovo 215 Sottinsky Nasleg 121 Spafareva, Fr. 344 Mediterranean 40 Middle Trans-Urals 233 Middle Volga 305, 372 Middle Amur Region 72, 116, 145, 395, 401 Middle Irtysh area 237 Middle Ob 234, 241, 306. 363 Central Siberian Plateau 72 Middle Amur 11, 33, 74, 145, 148-150, 264, 309, 323, 429 Middle Yenisei 62, 64, 79, 116-119, 169, 185, 187, 299. 360 Middle Irtysh 237, 304, 361, 364 Middle Ural 353, 355 Middle Chulym 241, 360 Central Asia 17, 22, 24, 38, 40, 41, 71, 77, 78, 82, 86, 96, 103, 104, 144, 165, 179, 185, 211, 217, 218, 228, 230, 233, 239, 242, 249 260, 266, 270, 277, 290, 293, 296, 303, 320. 376, 386, 428 Central Lena 72, 119-122, 124, 125, 391.401 Medium Ob 25 Middle Capital (Bohai) 333 Sretensk 212 Splices 44 Stanovoy Ridge 401 Starodubskoye II 155, 156 Old Muslim (Tatar) cemetery (Tomsk) 98-100 Old Siktah 122 Arrows 119 Suban 337 Subin 325 Sug Hole 287 Suji 242, 284 Suzuhe, settlement 264 Suzuhe, r. 264 Suifong 88, 136, 143, 261, 264, 324, 326-329, 331, 332, 341, 342, 402 Suiyuan 184, 270 Sulino 249 Sumangin 122 Sungari 72, 251, 308, 316, 317, 320, 322, 324, 403, 405-407 Suruktah Khaya 125 Susuyskaya parking 220 Suchan 21, 45, 73, 142, 145 Bitch 131, 133, 135, 137. 139 Sim (Chirombu) 395 Syr-Daria 40, 185 Syr Chaatas 258 Saganut burial ground 382, 383 Xia see Tangut kingdom Xianbi 251 Xiande 316 Xianzhou 322 Tavda 304, 353-355, 358, 364, 368 Tagarsky, about. 18 Tagar Lake 25 Tagisken 183 Tajikistan 78 Tadush 87, 88. 90, 91, 148 Thailanl 75 Taigonos 344, 416 Taimyr Peninsula (Taimyr) 94, Talitsky, settlement 71 Tambara 258 Tanamas see Commander Islands Tangut Kingdom (Xia) 333. 338, 339 Tannu-ola 268 Tanyurer 412 Gaowen 403 Tapar wash 355 Tartas 239 Tarukishi 90 Tarja 134, 153 Taseeva, b. 20, 379 Tasty-butak 174, 178 Tas-Khaza 168 Tatar Strait 220 Taui mountain 344 Tashatkan town 366 Tashkent 40, 179 Tashtyk 25, 258 Teletskoye, oz. 376 Tere-Khol 286 Tes 24, 161 Tetyukhe, bay 32, 262 Tetyukhe, r. 134, 141, 142 Tetyukhe (Tetyukhinskoye settlement) 142, 144, 153, 218 Tetyukhinsky cape (hill) 141 Teshik-Tash 133 Tibet 63, 71 Tibetan Plateau 40 Crucible 415, 416, 421 Tiligul 249 Pacific Ocean 5, 9, 16, 33, 71, 76, 91, 94, 96, 145, 154, 343, 409. 411, 414, 415, 427, 428, 431 Toba (Taibo) 309 Toba Wei 316 Tobol 237, 238, 354, 358, 361, 364, 367, 368, 378 Tobolsk 13, 18, 237, 358 Tobolsk District 355 Todaiji 319 Toyon Aryy 392 Tola 59, 266-268, 273 Tologoy 215 Tommot 122 Tomsk 9, 18, 61, 98-100, 170, 172, 178, 179, 186, 239, 361, 376 Tomsk region 29, 360, 361 TOMSK BURIAL 18, 98, 99, 204 Tom 13, 14, 17, 101, 170, 179, 186, 204, 241, 306, 361, 379 Tone tour 365 Torgalyk 375 Toyanov Gorodok 361 "Pipe" 117, 119, 204, 205 Tuba (Ulsa) 189, 281, 298, 299, 378 Tuban ulus 378 Tuva 8, 11, 28, 30, 71, 194, 215, 227-233, 253-257, 266, 267, 269 272, 274-277, 281-291, 372-376, 429 Tugozvonovskoye burial 303 Tukin (Dugin) 270 Tumangan (Tyumen-ula) 142 264, 402, 407 Tumat-taiga 373 Tumnin 401 Tumyn 328 Tunguska Lower 123, 395 Tunguska Middle (Podkamennaya) 123. Tunka 17, 384 Tunkinsky region 292 Tunkinsky district 383 Tongjiang 323 Tuoi-Khaya 123-125 Tour 304, 353-355, 358, 364, 366 Turgay 361, 362 Turgai burial ground 362 Turkmenistan 78 Turukta 121 Turukhan 395 Turfan see Coachan Turpan oasis 89 Tuyakhta 227 Donghaejin 330 Tym 154, 241, 359 Tyr (Dkli, Teli) 405, 406 Tali see Tyr Tyumen region 6, 7 Tyumen Khanate 364, 368 Tyumen 96, 304, 364 Tyumen-ula, see Tumangan Tien Shan 40, 268, 303 Ubsanur 268, 375 Weighting, r. 221 Uda 44, 61, 216 Uzun-both 190, 195 Uibat 18, 19, 166, 281. 298 Uybat steppe 19 Uibat Chaatas 25, 300 Uyghur State (Uyghuria, Uyghur Khaganate) 286, 317 Ukraine 78, 428 Ukulan 209 Ulalinka 41-43 Ulaanbaatar 61, 216, 268, 273 Ulan-Ude 9, 10, 31, 40, 212, 215 Ulan-Khada 21, 26, 118, 204 Ulsa see Tuba Ulug-Khem see Upper Yenisei Ulug-Khem district 275, 373 Ulug-Khorum 228 Ulu-Kem see Upper Yenisei Unga 31, 293-295 Unga settlement 293, 294 Wolba, oz. 125 Walba, parking lot 122 Walbinsky kardal 126 Ural Mountains (Ural, Ural Range) 5, 9, 10, 13, 14, 37, 69, 71, 72, 78, 85, 94, 96, 98, 103, 104, 180, 236, 38. 239. 252. 305. 353,
354, 366- 369, 372, 428. 429. 430, 431 Urilsky, about. 33 Harvest 44, 78, 79 Urumqi 268 Urungu 268 Uriankhai (Orankai) 407 Uryankhai region 22, 27, 244 245 Usolka 379 Ussuri 91, 136, 137, 150, 252, 264 308, 320, 324, 406 Ussuriysk 21, 22, 32, 73, 74 136, 141-143, 145, 264, 318, 319, 341, 342 Ussuri Bay 261, 262 Installation 87, 148 Ust-Aldansky district 121 Ust-Belaya (Angara basin) tab. 38-39, 80, 82-84 Ust-Belsky burial ground (Chukotka) 151, 210, 221-223 Ust-Yerba 178 Ust-Il 213 Ust-Kanskaya cave 41, 44, 71 Ust-Kurenga 97 Ust-Kurengskoe burial 104 Ust-Kuyum 161 Ust-Kyakhta 65 Ust-Maya 122 Ust-Poluy 234-237, 354 Ust-Poluy settlement 234 Ust-Seminskaya parking 44, 70 Ust-Sobakinskaya parking 203, 205 Ust-Talkin 294 Ust-Tesi 25 Ust-Timpton 122 Ust-Udinsky burial ground 31 Ust-Tsilemskaya Sloboda 370 Ustyug 367, 368 Utachen 327 Cliffs 221 Utu-Elga 293, 294 Wuhuan 251 Wushiji 405 Ushkanka 251 Ushkovskoye, oz. tab. 38-39, 93, 153 Uelensky burial ground 347, 349, 350 Fedorovka 249 Fedyaevo 44 Fergana 288, 290 Filimoshki 41, 43 Finland 236, 355 Fominskaya, parking 44 Fofanova 201, 211, 212 France 6, 53, 54, 58 Furdanchen 342 Fuyu 313, 315, 316 Fairbanks 89 Khabarovsk 91, 92, 134, 136, 138, 264. 407 Khabsagay 381 Hai Dongshengguo see Bohai Haichuan 329 Khakassia 24, 165, 282 Khakass Autonomous Region 25 Khakass-Minusinsk basin, see Minusinsk basin Khalkha 248, 376, 387 Hamju 330 Khangai 268, 271 Khanka 74, 91, 141, 219, 264, 407 Hara Aryy 392 Khara-Balgasun (Kharabalgas) 20, 302 Khara-Busun 213 Harazargay 292 Haranarin 268 Kharakhorin see Karakorum Harbin 407 Kharinskaya Sopka 219, 220 Harlon-Kel see Salt Lake Hariyalaakh 391, 392 Khasan district 319 Hashan 403 Khatanga 94 Khatyn Aryy 392 Khem see Yenisei Khashkhay 296 Khemchik 268, 287, 289, 291, 376 Khingan (Khingan Mountains) 217, 251, 401, 430 Khinskaya pad 82, 84-86, 118 Hirkhira 380 Khirkhirinsky town 379, 380 Khodjikent cave 40 Hoiningfu see upper capital Hokkaido 90, 140, 156, 315 Honshu 315, 346 Khorinsk 61 Horo-Yurege 122 Huai 334, 338 Huaihuan 270 Huaiyuan 318 Huaiyang 338 Huanghe, see Yellow. Khubsugul 268 Hulawen 404 Hulan 407 Hooligay 403 Hulyum Sunt 97 Hunan 339 Hungari 138 Hongchun 328 Hunongjiang 403 Khurkhabir see Mudanjiang Hebei 339 Heisha see Kara-Kum Helan (Helanfu Hailan) 32, 135, 332, 337, 403 ) ^~ Helan, r. 330 Henan 333, 334 Hengtei 268 Caizhou 340 Central Asia 21 38 40, 41, 62, 63, 66, 70, 71, 76, 82 86, 89, 90, 93, 116, 127, 136, 210 211, 215, 227, 228, 232, 233, 248 257 266 267 269 270 272 274 280 281 284-286 288 293 295-301 303 340 376 381 428 430 431 Central Europe tab. 38-39, 43 Central Manchuria 325 Central Mongolia 21 Central Tuva 228 Central Chukotka 94 Central Yakutia 69, 77, 95 123, 388, 392 Central Altai 30, 227 Central Kazakhstan 71, 183, 184 304 Central Tien Shan 179 Jian-gun (Gegun, Kyrgun) 296, 297 Jianzhou see Dunhua Jargulu 405 Tsigenovsky (Segenutsky) ulus 381 Cyclodrome (Lokomotiv) 31, 115 Tsingalinsky yurts Ciulatan 405 Chaa-Khol 289, 374 Chaa-Kholsky district 275, 373 Chalaghan 403 Changboshan (Changbaishan) 308, 309, 320 Chaoxian 313 Chapigou 145, 319 Chapel Mountain 381 Chastinskaya 61, 66, 72 Frequent, fall 31, 82, 84-86, 118 Chatyr-Kul 179 Chaun mountain 346 Chaun Bay 412, 414 Chegitun 350, 351 Chekurovka 126 Chelyabinsk 239 Chelyabinsk region 238, 239 Cheremushnik 44, 65, 81 Chernigovka 74 Chernovaya, r. 165, 166, 168, 169 Draft VI 161, 164 Black Sea 217, 249, 303 "Black Sands", see Kara-Kum Black Iyus 377 Four-pillar, about. 350, 351 Czechoslovakia 58 Zhaozhou 403 Zhen 312, 313 Zhenhua 323 Zhoukoudian 75 Chikayevo 221 Chikoy 44, 242 Chimga-tura 364, 366 Chinyaev settlement 365 Circuo 123 Chirovoe, oz. 221, 222 Chirombu see Sym Chita 40, 94, 214 Chita region 215, 379, 380 Chichka-yul 361 Chona 123, 124 Chongpyeong 329 Chokh-chur-Muran 77 Chugai Kuz (Zongcai Shan) 272 Freaks 238 Chukotsky District 346 Chukotsky Peninsula (Chukotka) 11, 17, 28, 32 33, 46, 93, 151, 210, 221, 223, 346, 350. 412, 416, 417 Chukchi Sea 412, 413 Chukchi coast 222 Chukochya, r. 415 Chulym 16, 19, 29, 186, 241-258, 359-362, 377, 378 Chulym-Yenisen basin 187 Chulym-Yenisei Plain 62 Churumal 374 Chusovaya 71, 354, 357 Cheongcheonggang 323 Chasty Yag 97 Shagonar 287, 289, 373 Shandong 315, 338, 339 Shanxi 334 Shanjin see upper capital Shara-muren (Silyaohe) 141, 268 Shelagsky, cape 411, 415 Sheremetyevo 136, 137, 139 Shidukha 405 Shilka 116, 212, 214, 216, 268, 307, 309 Shilkinskaya cave 116 Shilkinsky plant 116 Shihshit 384 Shishkin 33, 35, 65, 113, 153, 295, 296 Shishkinsky rocks 381, 388 Schmidt, cape 415 Shokhtoy 294 Shuaibin 318 Shui-dada 403 Shuidungou 61 Shunnuzhi 322 Ymyyakhtaah, lake. 121 Ymyyakhtah, parking lot 122 Evoron 130, 140 Edzin-goal 268 Ekven burial ground 347 Ekichuverweem 350 Expeditions, Bay 261 Elegest 373-375 Elygytkhyn 151, 221 Enurmin 415 Erdeni-Tzu 260 South, r. 71, 367 Southeast Asia 40 41 73-75, 91, 121, 201 Southeast Tuva 373 Southwestern Turkmenistan 96 Yugra Land (Yugra) 20, 367, 369 Yuedeyskaya parking 120 South Asia 43, 75, 77 Southern Manchuria 403 South Sosva 355 South Tuva 278 Southern France 49 South Yakutia 123 Southern Transbaikalia 248 Southern Trans-Urals 179, 233 South Primorye 87, 402 Southern Altai 228, 275, 362 South Deer Island 125, 127 Apple Ridge 401 Yaya burial ground 100 Yakitikiveem 94, 221 Jaxart 183 Yakutsk 9, 77, 120-122, 185, 207-209, 388 Yakut ASSR (Yakutia) 7, 11, 28, 31, 76, 116, 119-127, 148, 153, 207- 211, 218, 221, 291, 292, 345, 347, 352, 385, 387,
388, 390-392, 394, Yakut province. 23 Yakutsk region 393 "Yakutsky vzvoz" 388 I Yakutsk-Vilyui depression 77 Yalu 320, 323, 324 Yamal tab. 38-39, 353 Yana 387, 392, 410 Yandogai 347 Yanzhan 314 Yanchihe 319 Japan 7, 8, 73, 83, 90, 93, 134, 140, 145, 315, 319, 320 Japanese Islands 90, 91, 132-134, 142, 144, 145, 156, 158, 265, 319, 402 Sea of Japan 87, 141, 154, 307, 317, 323
The Russian Far East is not a single ethnographic region. Historically, the ethnic map of the region was extremely varied. Hundreds of tribes and clans inhabited a vast territory from the coast of the Arctic Ocean to the borders of China and Korea. In the reports of Russian explorers of the XVII century. Chukchi, Koryaks, Eskimos, Kamchadals, Yukaghirs, Tungus, Aleuts, Gilyaks, Natki, Achans, Goldiks, Solons, Daurs, Duchers and others are mentioned. Far Eastern aborigines have come a long way of their development. They were the first to settle in the taiga and tundra, came to the shores of the Arctic and Pacific oceans, created unique cultures. The features of the historical path of the natives of the Far East and the originality of their cultures largely depended on the geographical environment against the background and conditions of which these peoples lived.
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