Map projections and distortions on maps. Topo karta.docx - Summary of a lesson in geography on the topic "Topographic map" (grade 8) Location of cartographic images of the earth's surface

Lesson number 7

I option

The founder of the science "geography" is:

a) Herodotus; b) Eratosthenes; c) Aristotle.

For the first time, geography as a science appeared in:

a) Ancient Egypt; b) Ancient Greece; c) Ancient Rome.

The main method for determining the dimensions of the earth's surface is:

a) cartographic; b) descriptive; c) space.

The science of creating and using maps is called:

a) geography; b) cartography; c) topography.

Circle the globe is:

a) 39 690 km; b) 40,000 km; c) 40,075 km.

The equator is:

a) a line passing through the poles of the planet

b) a line that divides the earth's surface in half and is located on

equal distance from the poles

c) a line passing through any two points on the earth's surface

Correlate the concepts and its definition:

EARTH RADIUS DEFINITION

1) equatorial radius a) distance from the center of the planet to the equator

2) polar radius b) distance from the center of the planet to the poles

Which statement characterizes the globe?

a) gives an idea of ​​the shape of the Earth;

b) does not give a correct idea of ​​the size geographic sites;

C) does not give a correct idea of ​​the shape of the Earth.

Establish a correspondence between the image of the earth's surface and the way it is displayed.

PICTURE PICTURE METHOD

1) flat image a) map

2) three-dimensional image b) globe

C) area plan

On the map and globe, continents, oceans, islands and other geographical objects are depicted:

a) in an enlarged form;

b) in a reduced form;

c) without changing the size.

The orienteering device is called:

a) thermometer; b) compass; c) barometer.

Which color corresponds to the end of the compass arrow pointing north:

a) white; b) red; c) blue.

The direction between north and west is called:

a) northeast; c) southwest;

b) northwest; d) southeast.

The first compass appeared:

a) in India; b) in Russia; c) in China.

Set the correspondence between the views of the sides of the horizon and their names:

HORIZON SIDE VIEW HORIZON SIDE

main sides of the horizon a) north

intermediate sides of the horizon b) northeast

B) northwest

D) south

D) southwest

16. Which scientist in ancient times calculated the size of the globe?

17. What is the difference between the axial motion of the Earth and the orbital motion?

18. What is indicated on a geographic map by shades of blue?

Test on the topic: "Earth and its image"

II option

Geography as a science originated in:

a)Icentury BC b)IIcentury BC v)IIIcentury BC

At the beginning of its development, geography had

a) descriptive meaning; b) scientific significance; c) measurement value.

Arrange the methods of geographical research in chronological order (according to the time of their origin from the most ancient to the most modern):

a) descriptive; b) cartographic; c) space.

An example of a cartographic source of geographic knowledge is:

a) an album of photographic images;

b) scientific article;

c) atlas.

Equator length is:

a) 40,000 km; b) 39 690 km; c) 40,075 km.

The equator divides the Earth into hemispheres:

a) north and west; c) western and eastern;

b) east and south; d) north and south.

Set correspondence:

MOTION TYPE MOTION DESCRIPTION

axial movement a) movement of the earth around the sun

orbital motion b) the movement of the Earth around its axis

Choose the correct expression describing the card:

a) flat image of the earth's surface

b) has no distortion

c) gives an idea of ​​the shape of the Earth

Match the color used on the physical map with its meaning.

COLOR UNEQUALITY EARTH SURFACE

yellow a) mountains

green b) low plains

brown c) raised plains

Arrange photographic images as coverage increases.

a) satellite image;

b) a snapshot from the Earth's surface;

c) aerial photograph.

Determining your position relative to the sides of the horizon is called:

a) orientation; b) leveling; c) timing.

The sun rises on:

a) north; b) the east; c) the west.

The direction between south and east is called:

a) northeast; b) southwest;

b) northwest; c) southeast.

A specially shaped canvas hat for sailors and fishermen is called:

a) cap; b) cap; c) southwest.

Set the correspondence between the directions on the sides of the horizon by their names:

HORIZON SIDE DIRECTIONS

1 a) west

B) south

1 2 c) north

D) east

16. What proofs of the sphericity of the Earth did Aristotle give?

17. What are the two main types of motion the Earth makes?

18. What is indicated on the map by shades of green?

ANSWERS

Test

Lesson topic: Topographic map.
Lesson type: combined
Lesson date:
Educational resources multimedia presentation, physical map Russia topographic map
Lesson plan: 1. What is a topographic map. 2. What is the purpose of t. K. 3. About the features t. K. 4. About what is the magnetic declination. 5. How
navigate the topographic map.
Purpose: to study the features of a topographic map.
Lesson objectives. 1. Create pedagogical conditions for students in which they can:
call distinctive features topographic maps; explain how to determine distances, azimuths, directions in topographic
map; use various instruments (protractor, ruler) to determine distances and azimuths from a topographic map; explain the differences
geographic and magnetic pole of the Earth; explain the need to determine magnetic declination and magnetic azimuth; carry out a comprehensive
analysis of geographical conditions for conducting economic activities on a topographic map.
2. To form the skill of orientation using a topographic map. 3. To form subject and metasubject educational actions on a dream
the thematic content of the lesson.
Basic terms and concepts azimuth, terrain profile, scale, magnetic azimuth, magnetic declination, compass, orientation, geographic
pole, magnetic pole.
Planned results:
Personal: the formation of the ability to independently acquire new knowledge and practical skills using the area plan.
Metasubject: the formation and development through geographic knowledge of cognitive interests, intellectual and creative abilities.
Subject: determine the scale on the plan, map; convert the scale from one type to another; make measurements on the plan and simple calculations;
read topographic plan using conventional symbols.
Lesson stage
Organizational
ny moment
Updating
knowledge
Definition
lesson topics
Teacher activity
Organization for the lesson. Greeting students, checking
readiness to learn for the lesson.
Student activities
Greetings from the teacher, preparation for the lesson.
Organizational structure of the lesson
1. Test on the topic "Map and its mathematical basis"
2. Individual cards (application)
3. Retelling
The board contains maps of physical Russia and
topographic.
what kinds of cards do you see on the board?
on which map is it easier to calculate the scale and find the azimuth?
You will learn the definition of lesson objectives with. eleven
Demonstrate knowledge of the material covered.
Answers: 1a, 2d, 3c, 4a, 5b, 6) 1d, 2c, 3b, 4a 7) b, d, e 8) c, b, d, a
They answer questions, determine the topic of the lesson.
Write the topic of the lesson in a notebook

The study
new topic
Primary
comprehension and
anchorage
Lesson summary.
Reflection
Problem question p.11
We begin the study of new material with an analysis of the key
words according to the content of the paragraph.
Explanation. Reading topo maps using conditional
signs on the example of the topo map of the atlas and the textbook.
Dynamic pause
Write down definitions, give examples
Practical assignments:
Perform other tasks. Answers
1. Write down numerical scale if the terrain on it
reduced 200 times.
2. Write down the numerical scale, if the terrain on it
reduced 200 times.
3. How many times is the distance on the plan reduced if
scale: 1: 100 1: 500 1: 100000
4. The length of the road between cities is 2400 km. How long
you get a line representing this highway on the map,
made on a scale: a) 1: 100,000,000; b) 1: 200,000,000?
Give your answer in millimeters.
K. p. Using a topographic map of the atlas or textbook,
complete assignments and answer questions.
1. Calculate the azimuth of the direction from the city of Odintsovo to the city
Ivanovo.
2. Determine the distance from the city of Odintsov to the city on the map
Ivanovo.
3. Moving from Odintsovo to Ivanovo, we go up
slope or down?
Did we complete the assigned tasks in the lesson?
Knowledge reproduction questions
1. What maps are called topographic?
2. What is orientation?
3. What is azimuth?
4. What are the types of azimuths?
5. What is magnetic declination?
1. 1:200
2.In 1cm 2m
3.V 100, 500, 100000
4.1cm 100000000cm = 1000km
X cm 2400km X = 2400: 1000 = 2.4 (cm)
1cm 200000000cm = 2000km
X cm 2400km X = 2400: 2000 = 1.2 (cm)
5.
6.
Sum up by pattern
Homemade
exercise
§2 retelling, answer questions.p.16
Write down D / Z

named and vice versa.
Named to Numeric:
1 cm 110 m =
1 cm 15 m =
1 cm 200 m =
1 cm 5 km =
1 cm 400 km =
Numeric to named:
1: 200 000=
1: 9 000 000 =
1: 130 000 =
1: 50 000 000=
1: 25 000 000=

A) determine the scale
distance between cities:
 Moscow Murmansk
 Krasnoyarsk - Yakutsk
 Penza Tula
1) Convert the scale from numerical to
named and vice versa.
Named to Numeric:
1 cm 110 m =
1 cm 15 m =
1 cm 200 m =
1 cm 5 km =
1 cm 400 km =
Numeric to named:
1: 200 000=
1: 9 000 000 =
1: 130 000 =
1: 50 000 000=
1: 25 000 000=
2) Determine the distances on the map.
A) determine the scale
distance between cities:
 Moscow Murmansk
 Krasnoyarsk - Yakutsk
Penza Tula
1) Convert the scale from numerical to
named and vice versa.
Named to Numeric:
1 cm 110 m =
1 cm 15 m =
1 cm 200 m =
Numeric to named:
1: 200 000=
1: 9 000 000 =
1: 130 000 =
2) Determine the distances on the map.
A) determine the scale
distance between cities:
 Moscow Murmansk
 Krasnoyarsk - Yakutsk
Penza Tula
2) Determine the distances on the map.
distance between cities:
region)
Vologda RostovnaDon
Saratov Irkutsk
2) Determine the distances on the map.
B) in degrees and kilometers determine
distance between cities:
Saint Petersburg Serov (Sverdlovsk
region)
Vologda RostovnaDon
Saratov Irkutsk
2) Determine the distances on the map.
B) in degrees and kilometers determine
distance between cities:
Saint Petersburg Serov (Sverdlovsk
region)
Vologda RostovnaDon
Saratov Irkutsk

1 cm 5 km =
1 cm 400 km =
1: 50 000 000=
1: 25 000 000=

Application.

1. Which of the listed projections is usually used when building maps of the territory of Russia?
a) conical; b) oblique azimuthal; c) normal azimuth; d) cylindrical.

3. Which of the following cards will have the smallest distortion size? a) map of the Eastern Hemisphere;
b) map of Eurasia; c) a map of the Crimea peninsula; d) physical map of the world.
4. In which of the listed projections there are no distortions in the parallel of tangency of the cone and the ball? a)
conical; b) oblique azimuthal; c) normal azimuth; d) transverse azimuthal.
distortion. 2) There are no angular distortions on the navigation charts. a)
only the 1st statement is true; b) only the 2nd statement is true; c) both statements are true; d) both
the statements are wrong.
Numerical scale
1) 1:5000
2) 1:50000
3) 1:5000000
4) 1:50000000
1
Named scale
A) 1 cm 500 km
B) 1 cm 50 km
B) in 1cm 500 m
D) in 1cm 50 m
3
4
2
7. For which three of the listed countries of the world is the best cartographic projection of their images
will it be tapered? Write your answer as a sequence of letters in alphabetical order. a)
Indonesia; b) Canada; c) Kenya; d) Russia; e) USA; f) Ecuador
8. Position the cartographic images of the earth's surface as they decrease in scale. a)
plan of the city of Moscow; b) physical map of Eurasia; c) physical map of the world; d) physical map
Russia.
§ 1. Map and its mathematical basis.
1. Which of the following projections, as a rule, is used when building maps of the territory
Russia? a) conical; b) oblique azimuthal; c) normal azimuth; d) cylindrical.
2. In which of the following projections there is no distortion along the equator line? a) azimuthal; b)
conical; c) polyconic; d) cylindrical.
3. Which of the following cards will have the smallest distortion size? a) map of Vostochny
hemispheres; b) map of Eurasia; c) a map of the Crimea peninsula; d) physical map of the world.
4. In which of the listed projections there are no distortions in the parallel of tangency of the cone and the ball?
a) conical; b) oblique azimuthal; c) normal azimuth; d) transverse azimuthal.
5. Are the following statements true? 1) The larger the scale of the map, the greater the value on it
distortion. 2) There are no angular distortions on the navigation charts.
a) only the 1st statement is true; b) only the 2nd statement is true; c) both statements are true; G)
both statements are wrong.
6. Set the correspondence between the numerical and the corresponding named scale.
Numerical scale
5) 1:5000
6) 1:50000
7) 1:5000000
8) 1:50000000
Named scale
A) 1 cm 500 km
B) 1 cm 50 km
B) in 1cm 500 m
D) in 1cm 50 m
4
7. For which three of the listed countries of the world is the best cartographic projection of their
1
2
3
image will be tapered? Write the answer as a sequence of letters in alphabetical order
okay. a) Indonesia; b) Canada; c) Kenya; d) Russia; e) USA; f) Ecuador

The surface of the globe cannot be drawn on a plane without distortion. Only on a spherical globe can the similarity and proportionality of the sizes of all parts of the earth's surface be preserved. But globes are inconvenient for use, and their scale is usually not large, for example, at a scale of 1 km to 1 cm (1: 100,000), the diameter of the globe would be 127.4 m.

Exists different ways images of the earth's surface on a plane. They are all called map projections. Some of them are obtained by actually projecting the earth's surface onto a plane with rays emanating from a constant point of view located outside, on or inside the globe, others have a different geometric meaning. Each of these methods indicates a completely specific method for depicting the earth's surface on a plane and taking into account the inevitable distortions.

However, if you take an ordinary school globe 1: 50,000,000 scale (with a diameter of about 25 cm) and pin a small piece of paper 1 cm2 in size to its surface, it turns out that it almost completely coincides with the surface of the globe without folds. This shows that in small areas we can consider the earth's surface flat and depict it on paper while maintaining the geometric similarity of figures. Such images are often called plans. The use of projections here loses its significance, since even in different, but properly selected, projections, the images of very small areas of the globe hardly differ from each other.

When considering cartographic projections, the image on the plane of the earth's surface is practically replaced by the image on the plane of the geographic grid of meridians and parallels, which on the map is called the cartographic grid. This is permissible because, having built the meridians and parallels on the map, we can plot any point according to its geographic coordinates. Therefore, in the subsequent presentation, we are talking about a grid of meridians and parallels on the "mathematical surface" of the earth, for which we take the surface of the oceans, mentally continued under the continents, and about the image of this grid on a plane. For some projections, cartographic grids are built in a geometric way, but more often they use a different technique. First, the flat rectangular coordinates of the points of intersection of the meridians and parallels are calculated according to the available formulas of the selected projection, then these points are placed on the paper along the coordinates and then connected with smooth curved lines depicting meridians and parallels.

Each conventional image of the earth's surface on a plane, that is, each projection corresponds to a well-defined type of cartographic grid and well-defined permissible distortions. Distinguish between distortions of lengths, areas and angles.

It is known that on the earth's surface all meridians have the same length; the segments of the same parallel between adjacent meridians are also equal. But only the middle meridian is drawn as a straight line; the rest of the meridians are curved lines, the length of which increases with distance from the middle meridian. The parallels are distorted to the same extent - their segments between neighboring meridians increase with distance from the middle meridian.

There are other projections that do not distort lengths along certain well-defined directions. For example, equidistant cylindrical. On it, the meridians are transmitted without distortion, since the lengths of the meridians on the grid are equal to the lengths of the meridians in nature, of course, with a decrease to the scale of the map. But the lengths of the parallels in this projection are distorted. On the grid, the segments of parallels between two adjacent meridians remain constant at any latitude, whereas in nature they decrease as they approach the poles.

The expression "distortion of lengths" means that the lengths are transmitted on the same map with different reduction, that is, at different scales in different places on the map. In other words, the scale on the same map is not constant; it can change not only at different points, but even at one point in different directions.

The scale that is signed on the map is called the main one; it determines the ratio of the lengths on the map to the corresponding lengths in nature only in some parts of the map, defined for each projection. The scales in the rest of its parts are more or less than the main one and are called private.

Such a projection, which would transmit any lengths in any direction without distortion, is impossible, since it would preserve the similarity and proportionality of all parts of the earth's surface, which can only take place on a globe.

Distortions of areas can be seen in the same figures. The surfaces of the cells located between two adjacent parallels are in nature the same size, but they increase markedly to the east and west of the middle meridian. The surfaces of the cells, bounded by two meridians, in nature decrease to the north and south of the equator; but they all have the same magnitude.

However, there are numerous projections on which the values ​​of surfaces are transmitted without distortion, all areas on such maps are proportional to the values ​​of the corresponding surfaces in nature, although the similarity of the figures is violated. Such projections are called equal area, equal area, or equivalent.

Meridians and parallels, forming right angles between themselves in nature, remain perpendicular only along the middle meridian. Conversely, the cartographic grid is free of angular distortion. Such projections, which preserve the magnitude of the angles, are called conformal or conformal. Around every point conformal projection at infinitesimal distances, the scale can be considered constant.

There are many projections that are neither equal in size nor conformal (they are called arbitrary), but there is no one that would combine both qualities.

___________
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1.1. Cartography is a subject and a definition.

Obviously, certain types and types of cards are needed in various fields of human activity. In industry and transport, in agriculture and cultural construction, they are not only necessary, but very often an indispensable tool for performing a complex of works.

Maps are needed to find new roads and power lines; the development of subsoil and mineral deposits begins with the study of the area on the maps. It is necessary for the construction of cities and villages, land reclamation, navigation and air navigation, the study of land resources, work on land management and land cadastre.

Maps are a reliable guide; in military affairs, they are one of the main sources of information about the terrain and an indispensable tool for command and control.

In addition to directly serving the national economic needs, geographical and other maps make it possible to study the country in geological, soil, botanical, demographic and other respects, to predict various natural phenomena, for example, such as climate or natural disasters. An important feature of modern cartography is the intensive development of its cognitive functions as a means of exploring the objective world and acquiring new knowledge.

The science of cartography deals with the study of maps, the methods of their creation and use.

The state standard of cartographic terms defines:

"Cartography is a field of science, technology and production, covering the study, creation and use of cartographic works."

1.2 Cartography structure

V In its entirety, cartography unites a number of scientific directions and disciplines:

- theoretical foundations of cartography (teaching about the map)- studies

and develops the theory of cartographic projections, generalization of cartographic images, methods of displaying thematic content, issues of creating sign systems (map legends).

- mathematical cartography- studies and develops mathematical methods of depicting other planets on the plane of the surface of the Earth. It is the first step in the process of creating maps.

Cartometry - studies and develops methods for measuring various objects using maps to determine their quantitative characteristics (coordinates, distances, heights, areas, volumes, tilt angles, etc.).

- design and mapping- studies and develops map projects, methods of their creation, the basic principles of editorial guidance at all stages of map creation.

Cartography - the study of the types and properties of geographical maps, the history of cartography, methods of using maps.

Card design - the study and development of methods and means of colorful and graphic design of cards (design) and their preparation for publication.

Publishing maps - developing ways to reproduce and reproduce maps.

- economics and organization of cartographic production- studying the methods of its most rational organization.

By its structure, cartography is closely related to a number of scientific

disciplines. These are: geodesy, astronomy, topography, geography and printing, mathematics, photogrammetry, computer science and computer graphics... In terms of its content, cartography is inconceivable without connection with such sciences as soil science, geology, demography, climatology, land management, etc.

Geodesy supplies cartographers with accurate data on the shape, size and gravitational field of the Earth, coordinates of geodetic control points.

Topography - provides primary cartographic sources - large-scale topographic maps that serve as the source material for the creation of all geographic maps.

Geography - explains the essence of natural and socio - economic phenomena, their origin, relationship and distribution on the earth's surface.

From printing - cartography borrows methods of making printed forms and reproduction of maps.

Since the inception of cartography, mathematics has been at the heart of it, mathematical cartography can be viewed as a purely mathematical discipline. Implementation in cartography computer technology made it possible to develop new types of maps, calculate the most complex projections, enrich cartography with new methods of studying maps using the apparatus of mathematical statistics, and made it possible to largely automate the laborious process of creating maps.

Photogrammetry develops methods for determining the position, size and shape of objects on the earth's surface using aerospace survey materials. Aerial photography currently makes it possible to obtain a map that is superior in accuracy to similar products obtained by land, in addition, to minimize ground geodetic and topographic work.

Naturally, geoinformatics and geographical sciences (geomorphology, hydrology, etc.), sciences about the nature of the Earth (botany, zoology), about the national economy, economics, history and many others can be included in the list of sciences with which cartography maintains a close relationship.

Summarizing the above, we can highlight the main directions of using maps for science and practice.

− general acquaintance with the terrain, region, country, mainland, their study on maps without visiting in nature;

− application as a guide (tourism, aviation, navigation

etc.);

− use as a basis for engineering use - transport, energy, industrial, agricultural, for the purposes of regional planning, construction;

− research and transfer of projects to nature;

− use in military affairs;

− study and rational use of natural (including land) resources and environmental protection;

− integrated and rational development of economic regions;

− use as an information basis in the conduct of work on land management and land cadastre.

1.3 Map elements, other cartographic works.

We have repeated the word map many times, but so far we have not considered the map as a graphic document, have not studied the elements of the map, its properties, and have not even given a clearly formulated definition.

The standard for cartographic terms defines:

"A map is a reduced, built in cartographic projection, generalized image of the Earth's surface, the surface of another celestial body or extraterrestrial space, showing the objects located on them in a certain system of conventional signs."

This may not be entirely flawless definition emphasizes three features of maps that are very important for understanding the features that distinguish a map from other images of the earth's surface, such as an aerial photograph or a landscape. It:

1. mathematically defined construction;

2. use of cartographic conventional symbols (codes);

3. selection and generalization of the depicted phenomena.

Mathematically defined construction of maps provides for the establishment of a strict functional relationship between geographic and rectangular

coordinates of points of the same name on the terrain and on the map. Such a construction, as it were, includes two actions for the transition from physical surface Land to its image on a plane. One of them consists in projecting the earth's surface onto the mathematical surface of the earth - the geoid. This design is done orthogonally, with plumb lines perpendicular to the mathematical surface. But due to its complexity, the geoid in cartography is replaced by a surface of an ellipsoid of revolution that is very similar in shape, i.e. figure obtained by rotating the ellipse around its minor axis (Figure 1.1).

It is with respect to this ellipsoid that all geodetic calculations are performed and cartographic projections are calculated.

Another action is to draw the surface of an ellipsoid on a plane. It is impossible to unfold the surface of an ellipsoid on a plane without folds and breaks, i.e. various kinds of deformations will take place, which are called distortions in cartography. The transition from an ellipsoid to a plane is carried out using cartographic projections expressing the relationship between the coordinates of points on the earth's surface and the coordinates of the same points on the plane (map sheet).

When such a dependence is known, it is possible to take into account the distortions of the flat image and, therefore, to determine the actual distances, areas, angles from the map with the required accuracy, that is, to obtain from the maps the correct data on the location, size and outlines of the depicted objects.

The use of cartographic symbols becomes evidently beneficial when comparing a map with an aerial photograph of the same area. The initial impression may be unfavorable to the card. Indeed, an aerial photograph allows you to see the true picture of the earth's surface, but on the map

it is replaced by a system of signs that, as it were, obliterate many of the individual features of terrain objects and thereby impoverish the image. However, it can be noted that the use of cartographic signs allows:

1. Strongly reduce the image in order to cover a significant part of the earth's surface or the entire planet at a glance, while reproducing those objects that, due to the reduction, are not expressed in the scale of the map. In aerial photographs, as the scale decreases, the details are difficult to distinguish, and then they are completely lost.

2. show the terrain on the map, for example, using contours.

3. show not only appearance object, but also to indicate its intrinsic properties, for example, to give qualitative characteristics of agricultural land, to show the temperature and salinity of water, the height and species of trees in forests, and much more.

4. show the spread of phenomena that are not perceived by our senses, for example, magnetic declination, the magnitude of distortions, etc.

5. exclude insignificant aspects of objects and highlight their common and essential features. In this case, the process of selection and generalization of the depicted phenomena is very important, a process that is called cartographic generalization. Generalization saves on the map only those phenomena that are important in a practical or theoretical sense, it focuses on the transfer of the most significant features of the displayed phenomenon, primarily based on their purpose of the map. It allows you to distinguish the main from the secondary on the maps, to find general patterns in individual properties.

1.4 Elements of a geographic map

The study and development of maps requires an analytical approach to them, dividing them into their constituent elements, the ability to understand their meaning, determine their place, and see their connection with each other.

The map distinguishes between a cartographic image, a mathematical basis, auxiliary equipment and additional data (Figure 1.4.1).

Map Image and Associated Legend- the main part of any geographical map, contains information about the objects and phenomena shown on the map, their location, properties, connections.

This information is map content... In turn, the content of the map is subdivided into elements, both geographic and thematic. The complex of these elements is not the same on different maps. But one of the elements, namely hydrography, is required on all maps. For example, on thematic maps, the main elements of content can be minerals, animal or vegetable world, soil, etc. Content elements are depicted with equal detail on topographic maps.

Geometric laws of building maps are determined by its mathematical basis The elements of which include: a cartographic projection, as well as the associated cartographic grid (network of meridians and parallels), scale, geodetic reference network, nomenclature, map layout and layout.

The scale of the map indicates the overall degree of reduction of the earth's surface when plotting it on a plane. It is characterized by the ratio of the length of a line on the map to the corresponding line on the earth's surface. On maps, there are 3 types (methods) of displaying scale:

− numerical (e.g. 1: 25000)

− natural (for example, in 1 centimeter 250 meters)

− linear (transverse, graphical), displayed as a graph.

V depending on the scale of the map and the size of the mapped area, the map can be displayed on one or several sheets.

To the main elements mathematical basis refers map projection and associated map grid. Depending on the type of geometric surface on which the surface of the ellipsoid is projected, projections are distinguished: cylindrical, conical, azimuthal, and some others.

Layout - rational placement of the mapped territory, auxiliary and additional equipment on the map sheet.

Auxiliary equipment- makes it easier to read the map and work with it. It includes the necessary explanations and graphs for measuring by maps, as well as the name of the map, information about the performers, reference and output data, etc.

TO additional equipment include cards placed in the "air" or on

its fields additional cards, profiles, diagrams, text and digital data that explain, complement and enrich the cartographic image.

General geographic maps

Mathematical basis

Projection

Geodetic base

Nomenclature and breakdown

Hydrography

Layout

Subsidiary

equipment

Cartometric graphs

Reference data

Geographic

Thematic

US. points

Communication routes

Vegetation

Animal world

Additional data

Diagrams			Explanations			Additional maps

Since ancient times, a person had a need to convey to other people information about where he was and what he saw. Today, there are various types of images of the earth's surface. All of them are small models of the world around us.

Cartography

Images of the earth's surface appeared earlier than writing. Ancient man used a mammoth tusk, stone or tree for the first sketches of the area. V Ancient world the images were made on papyrus and cloth, and later on parchment. The earliest compilers of maps were real artists, and maps were works of art. Ancient maps resemble fabulous paintings depicting unknown countries and their inhabitants. In the Middle Ages, paper and the printing press appeared, which made it possible to organize the mass production of cards. The creators of the maps collected information about the Earth from the words of numerous travelers. The content of the maps became more and more varied. The science of maps as a special way of depicting the earth's surface, their creation and use is called cartography.

Globe - model of the Earth

The ancient Greeks proved for the first time that the Earth has the shape of a ball. To correctly display the shape of the Earth, a globe was invented. Globe (from the Latin word globe - a ball) - from a three-dimensional model of the planet, reduced by many millions of times. There are no surface distortions, therefore, with its help, they get the correct idea of ​​the location of continents, seas, oceans, islands. But the globe is much smaller than the Earth, and it is impossible to show any terrain in detail on it. It is inconvenient to use it when traveling.

Plan and map

A plan is a blueprint on which conventional signs a small area of ​​the terrain is shown in detail in a reduced form, so there is no need to take into account the curvature of the earth's surface.

A map is a generalized reduced image of the earth's surface on a plane using the system.

Geographic Maps have important properties. In contrast to the plans, they depict different areas of coverage - from small areas of the earth's surface to continents, oceans and the globe as a whole. When displaying the convex surface of the Earth on a flat sheet of paper, distortions in the image of its individual parts inevitably arise. However, maps allow you to measure distances and determine the size of objects. They contain information about the properties of objects. For example, about the height of the mountains and the depth of the seas, the composition of flora and fauna.

Atlases - collections of maps

An important step in the development of geographical representations was the creation of atlases of collections of maps. These are real cartographic encyclopedias. It is believed that the first collection of maps appeared in the Roman Empire. Later, in the 16th century, the very concept of "atlas" was introduced. Geographic atlases are very diverse in terms of territorial scope: world atlases, atlases
individual countries, regions and cities. According to their purpose, atlases are divided into educational, local history, road and others.

Aerospace imagery

Advances in aviation and astronautics have made it possible for humans to photograph the Earth. Aerial and satellite images provide detailed images of all the details of the terrain. But the geographical objects on them have an unusual look for us. Recognition of images in images is called decryption.

Today we increasingly use maps on a computer monitor or screen. mobile phone... They are created on the basis of satellite images using special computer programs.